Amaranthaceae

Amaranth Family

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FAMILY OVERVIEW: Perhaps no other family ranks of equal importance to foragers than the amaranth family (Amaranthaceae), especially as a source of seeds. Note that the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae) is now a subfamily within the amaranth family. Members of the amaranth family aren’t exactly known for having attractive flowers. In most species, flowers are reduced to the most basic parts: sepals, pistils, and/or stamens. Although they lack beauty, they don’t lack fertility. A high percentage of them develop into fruits bearing tiny seeds. This dynamic combined with numerous flowers and the tendency for family members to be weeds ensures that foragers will have a reliable resource. In the Southwest, foragers would be wise to consider species of the following genera: Allenrolfea, Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Monolepis, and Suaeda. Many species of these genera produce excellent seeds. Species of other genera tend to have issues such as excessive amounts of oxalates, nitrates, selenium, sulfur, saponins, phytotoxins, or other harmful constituents. Leaves are generally higher in these compounds than seeds, thus seeds are generally a better resource. A few species in the Amaranthus and Chenopodium genera were cultivated as staple crops for thousands of years, much like rice and whole grains are cultivated today. The best-known species of the amaranth family in cultivation today include: spinach, beets, chard, amaranth, and quinoa. Of these plants, only amaranth and a few relatives of quinoa grow wild in the Southwest. Recognizing these plants requires practice, so pictures and descriptions are provided in the following pages.

Picklebush

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FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Allenrolfea genus. The Allenrolfea genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now considered a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: Picklebush, pickleweed, or iodinebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Watson) Kuntze).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Native Americans living in the Great Basin harvested picklebush seeds in mass quantities and cave excavations demonstrate that this routine occurred over 8,000 years ago (Grayson pp. 302-303). The young stem tips are also edible, but the seeds represent the real value of this amazing shrub.

Picklebush seeds are tiny, brown, nutritious, delicious, easy to harvest, and easy to process. They have a mild flavor similar to whole grains and lack the musty character associated with members of the goosefoot subfamily. Picklebushes are fleshy shrubs that grow in salt marshes. Most parts, except for the seeds, have an extremely salty flavor. Seeds mature from August to December. They were a staple crop that earlier civilizations relied upon. Literally tons of hulls left from years of winnowing have been found in cave excavations in Utah and Nevada. Stem tips turning subtle shades of yellow, orange, and red signal the approaching harvest. When the seeds are finally ready, stem tips become dry, brittle, and light brown. Every stem tip supports numerous capsules merely resting on the edges of balcony-like compartments. A careful tap frees the capsules without breaking the stem tips. Capsules are delicate and papery. They readily crumble, release the seeds, and blow away as chaff when processed. Cores of the stem tips can be annoying because they approximate the seeds in size and weight. This makes them less responsive to winnowing. Avoiding them when gathering is preferable because they impart a bitter, salty, alkaline flavor. Separating chaff from seeds is easiest when all the parts are dry. Inside each capsule is a single seed. Pure seeds taste delicious. They can be ground into flour or formed into seed bars. Eggs or evergreen pitch can be used to effectively bind the seeds together, and berries can be added for sweetness. Seeds can also be toasted or boiled. Both methods produce excellent results, assuming all the chaff is removed. Overall, picklebush seeds are definitely worth the time and effort spent harvesting and processing.

Picklebush stem tips are edible fresh or cooked. When young, the stem tips are green, soft, tart, and extremely salty. The tartness comes from oxalic acid, which is harmful in large amounts. As the stem tips age, they become brown, woody, and unsuitable to use as food. The tips are best when young, thoroughly cooked, and consumed in moderation. Boiling reduces the salt content and the oxalic acid content. Picklebushes smell worse than pickleweeds (Salicornia), but thankfully the flavor is better than the aroma. Picklebush stems can photosynthesize, which is a task that leaves usually handle. True leaves are inconspicuous and wedged between the stem segments. As the common name implies, picklebushes were pickled. An herb-flavored salt substitute can be made by drying and finely chopping the stem tips.

NOTES: Harvesting picklebush seeds is like taking a step back in time. For thousands of years this routine was a primary activity or “occupation” of Great Basin inhabitants. I harvested the bulk of picklebush seeds for this reference near Delle Springs, about 30 miles west of Salt Lake City, Utah. To the north of Delle Springs, the Lakeside Mountains stand as a monument to history, where desert inhabitants once dwelt in a complex of caves and rock shelters. Many caves in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake have floors made of picklebush chaff. Any modern-day foragers seeking refuge in this region would certainly rely on picklebush for sustenance, just as indigenous people did so long ago. Tule Valley in the Sevier Desert of western Utah also has an ample supply of picklebush. The seeds I harvested from that area were essentially the same (in terms of size, shape, color, texture, and processing dynamics) as those from other areas. Much further south, in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona, California, and Mexico, picklebush seeds played a more variable role, where they served as a staple food to some tribes and a supplemental food to other tribes. The abundance of the shrubs and availability of other resources account for this difference in importance. Picklebush is adapted to salt marshes, which are only available in certain areas, and no areas surpass the Great Salt Lake for this habitat. Walking along the shoreline, I can almost hear the conversations of distant cultures echoing through the ages, telling stories of how life was in those days long past.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Allenrolfea genus is found in the United States. Leaves and branches of picklebush are arranged alternately. In closely related species of the Salicornia genus, these parts are arranged oppositely.

Description of picklebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis): FORM spineless, hairless, 3-12 dm tall shrub restricted to salt marshes; STEMS woody toward the bases, fleshy toward the tips, profusely branched, and appearing jointed due to constrictions at the nodes; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades tiny, wedge-like, and lodged between the stem joints; FLOWERS inconspicuous, perfect, and borne in groups of 3 arranged in spirals that form terminal spikes; sepals 4-5, green; petals absent; stigmas 2-3, yellow; stamens 1-2, yellow; FRUITS utricles ovoid, compressed, and one-seeded; SEEDS brown to reddish-brown, oblong, and smooth; HABITAT alkaline flats, edges of seasonally dry salt lakes, and floodplains; southwestern United States and Great Basin; blooming June to November.

REFERENCES: Picklebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis): young stems Couplan (p. 114); seeds Couplan (p. 114), Ebeling (p. 123), Grayson (pp. 302-303), Hodgson (pp. 149-150), Madsen (p. 61), and Rea (p. 69).

Amaranth

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FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Amaranthus genus.

SPECIES: Most southwestern species of the Amaranthus genus are edible, including: #1 greenstripe amaranth (Amaranthus acanthochiton J. D. Sauer = Acanthochiton wrightii Torr.). #2 white amaranth or white pigweed (Amaranthus albus L.). #3 matweed, mat amaranth, or prostrate pigweed (Amaranthus blitoides S. Watson). #4 red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.). #5 fringed amaranth (Amaranthus fimbriatus (Torr.) Benth. ex S. Watson). #6 slim amaranth or green pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L.). #7 Palmer’s amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson). #8 Powell’s amaranth (Amaranthus powellii S. Watson). #9 common amaranth, redroot amaranth, rough pigweed, or carelessweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). #10 Torrey’s amaranth (Amaranthus torreyi (A. Gray) Benth. ex S. Watson). #11 Watson’s or Baja amaranth (Amaranthus watsonii Standl.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Leaves of some species can irritate your mouth and throat. They can also accumulate oxalates and nitrates. Concentrations of these compounds in amaranths are generally too low to be of concern to foragers and the conditions necessary to cause harm are unlikely to occur on a well-balanced diet (Nabhan pp. 98-99 and Tull 1999 p. 30). Oxalates in amaranths are primarily of an insoluble type called calcium oxalate that’s poorly absorbed by the human digestive tract. Nitrates in amaranths are readily absorbed, but they’re also readily excreted. Both of these compounds normally pass through the body without adverse effects, but excessive amounts can be harmful. The amount of amaranth necessary to cause harm would be difficult to consume and the well-documented history of various species being cultivated as leafy vegetables and seed crops should negate any concerns over toxicity (Black p. 336, Cumo pp. 21-24, and Grubben pp. 63-89), at least in the cultivated species. Nitrates and oxalates are higher in the leaves than in the seeds. Nitrates can be reduced by thoroughly boiling the leaves, but oxalates (except for the soluble forms) are largely unaffected by boiling.

Leaves and seeds of all species listed above are edible, except for #1 which is only reported to have edible leaves. Leaves of some species taste much better than those of other species. Amaranth seeds are safer than the leaves and are usually some combination of red, brown, or black. Lighter-colored seeds are found primarily in cultivated species. All species are prolific seed producers. Harvesting and processing the seeds requires very little effort. Seeds (of the species sampled for this reference) had a similar taste, texture, and aroma. Leaves were more variable in these aspects. For thousands of years, various species of amaranth were cultivated as leafy vegetables and seed crops. Perhaps no other seeds were more important to past civilizations than amaranth seeds. Amaranths tend to bloom late. Unless otherwise noted, leaves of the following species are available in summer and seeds are available shortly afterward in autumn.

Greenstripe amaranth (A. acanthochiton) has edible leaves, but it’s a rare plant that won’t provide many calories to a hungry forager. Castetter (1935-a p. 10) described it as an ancient food of the Hopi Indians that was credited with averting famine on more than one occasion. Traditionally, it was gathered, tied into bundles, and cooked as a leafy vegetable. There’s apparently no mention of the seeds being used as food.

White amaranth (A. albus) produces extraordinary seeds that rank as a top-quality wild food. Collecting a supply is easy. The seeds are small, black, hard, and shiny. A few seeds may be reddish-brown, but the majority of them are black. Toasted seeds have a popcorn-like texture. They’re suitable for making seed bars, grinding into flour, or long-term storage. Boiled seeds make a hearty, grain-like mush. Any method of preparation yields good results. Seeds readily fall out of the capsules by the thousands. As white amaranth matures, it turns from green to brown. White is a reference to the stems, which tend to be pale greenish-white. Gloves are recommended when gathering this resource due to the sharp chaff. Winnowing requires very little effort. The chaff is lightweight compared to the seeds, so it readily blows away. If the plants are still moist, as they normally are when the seeds begin to mature, they’ll need to be dried to facilitate winnowing. White amaranth is a small, upright plant that grows throughout much of the world. Southwestern foragers are most likely to find it in summer or autumn.

Matweed (A. blitoides) produces excellent seeds, but rather harsh leaves. The seeds aren’t much different than those of white amaranth described above, except for being bigger (1.3-1.6 mm in diameter versus 0.6-1.0) and duller. Fresh matweed leaves taste acrid, but boiling improves the flavor. Whether or not the improvement is sufficient is debatable. Fresh or cooked, the leaves have a spinach-like quality underneath the harshness. The texture of fresh leaves is firmer than fresh spinach, and the texture of boiled leaves is not slimy like boiled spinach. The matweed leaves sampled for this reference came from poor-quality soil around the Salton Sea in southern California. Leaves gathered from other regions may taste better. Matweed is a low-lying “weed” thought to be native to the central United States. It’s now common throughout North America and Europe. Southwestern foragers are most likely to find it in disturbed areas at low to mid elevations in summer or autumn.

Red amaranth (A. cruentus) has a long history of cultivation as a seed crop, primarily in South America, but also in North America (Grubben pp. 67-72 and Hanelt p. 272). The Hopi Indians of northeastern Arizona called the plant “komo” and used the flower spikes to impart a pinkish color to “piki” (a traditional, paper-thin, corn bread rolled like a burrito). Several different Pueblo Indian groups made this bread, but it originated with the Hopi. It’s usually blue, but other colors are made for special occasions. A related species called purple amaranth (A. hypochondriacus) was cultivated as a source of seeds by southern bands of Paiute Indians (Sauer p. 12). These species are rarely found outside of cultivation, and are therefore of little value to foragers in the southwestern wilderness.

Fringed amaranth (A. fimbriatus) is an excellent species. The mild-tasting leaves are suitable for salads, and the seeds make high-quality porridge or seed bars. Seeds are contained within wildly fringed capsules that readily split open to release the tiny black treasures. No other species have such distinctive capsules. Obtaining the seeds is easy. Processing them is also easy and the final results are roughly equivalent to those of every other species sampled for this reference. Fringed amaranth is a native species found primarily in the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts after summer rains.

Slim amaranth (A. hybridus) is native to riverside habitats in eastern North America and eventually spread to warm climates nearly worldwide. It looks very similar to Powell’s amaranth, and other aspects (such as flavor, texture, aroma, and processing dynamics) may also be similar. These species differ primarily in bract length. Bracts of slim amaranth are 2-4 mm long versus 4-7 mm long in Powell’s amaranth. These species are otherwise identical and confusing them is of no concern to foragers because they’re both edible. Leaves of slim amaranth become available in summer and the seeds mature in autumn.

Palmer’s amaranth or “quelite” (A. palmeri) is native to southwestern North America and considered a weed elsewhere. It was gathered extensively by Native Americans as a source of leaves and seeds. Fresh leaves taste similar to spinach combined with a character unique to this plant. The flavor is about as good as leaves can possibly taste, which explains why quelite (pronounced kay-lee-tay) was held in such high regard. The name means “green leafy vegetable” and applies to many different plants that were gathered for their leaves. After brief boiling, the texture becomes soft, yet not mushy. Boiled leaves turn vivid green and taste similar to fresh leaves. The broth is equally vivid. Quelite leaves are nutritious, but they also contain oxalates and nitrates. Concentrations of these compounds are generally too low to be of concern to foragers (Nabhan pp. 98-99). The seeds are much lower in these compounds and rank among the top 10 best wild foods. Quelite seeds are shiny, black, and very hard. Toasting effectively softens the texture. Toasted seeds can be eaten without fear of chipping a tooth. They pop when toasted and tend to fly a short distance, so keeping them covered to prevent their escape is wise. Boiling is another good option. Only about 10-15 minutes of boiling is required to soften the seeds. All methods of preparation yield good results. The flavor is neutral, much like whole grains. No unpleasant overtones compromise these seeds. Quelite is a prolific seed producer. Just one plant can yield impressive amounts of seeds. Due to the spiny chaff, leather gloves should be worn when gathering this resource. Seeds readily fall out of the capsules and chaff readily blows away. Quelite, or other species of amaranth, will eventually be cultivated when irrigation becomes too expensive for the average farming operation, but for now it’s “among the most noxious of all weeds,” which is good news for hungry foragers. Like most species, the leaves normally become available in summer and the seeds mature in autumn. Overall, quelite is a fantastic wild food that could not be abundant enough.

Powell’s amaranth (A. powellii) is native to southwestern North America and considered a weed in Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world. It looks very similar to slim amaranth (A. hybridus) and common amaranth (A. retroflexus). Only minor differences occur in these species and all of them can be used in the same ways. Various species of amaranth have been cultivated as staple crops for thousands of years, and they should be cultivated today because they only require a small fraction of the water currently used to irrigate whole grains. Fresh leaves of Powell’s amaranth make top-quality salad material tasting similar to spinach with nettle-like overtones. No unpleasant accents or annoying textures compromise these leaves. Even the stalks are tender. Mature seeds are reddish-black and readily fall out of the spikes. A gentle tap releases hundreds of seeds that are ready to eat without any processing required. Fresh seeds are dry enough for long-term storage. They taste fantastic and cooking further improves the flavor. Toasting is a particularly good option. However, be sure to cover the seeds when toasting, because they’re inclined to fly out of the pan! Some seeds mature when the flower spikes are still green, but the majority of them won’t be ready until the spikes turn brown. Young green spikes are soft. Old brown spikes have spiny chaff and should only be handled with gloves. Working the spikes is necessary to release any trapped seeds. The spiny chaff is lightweight and readily blows away. Winnowing is not a difficult chore. Like most species, the leaves become available in summer and the seeds mature in autumn. Overall, Powell’s amaranth is a fantastic wild food that could not be abundant enough.

Common amaranth (A. retroflexus) is native to temperate regions of central and eastern North America and invasive nearly worldwide. It looks very similar to Powell’s amaranth. These species differ primarily in the pistillate tepals (amaranth’s version of a petal/sepal on a female flower). Those of common amaranth are rounded rather than pointed at the tips. The flavor, texture, aroma, and processing dynamics of the leaves and seeds are presumably similar to those aspects of Powell’s amaranth described above. Leaves of common amaranth become available in summer and the seeds mature in autumn.

Torrey’s amaranth (A. torreyi) is a native southwestern species that grows from California to Texas and southward into Mexico. It blooms from late summer to early autumn in rocky, sandy, or naturally disturbed places around 1,000 to 1,700 meters (about 3,000 to 5,000 feet) elevation. Like most species, it responds to summer rainfall, so the leaves become available in summer and the seeds mature in autumn.

Watson’s amaranth (A. watsonii) is a native species found primarily in Mexico, especially in sandy soils around the Sea of Cortez. In the United States, it reaches the Salton Sea of southern California and sandy places in southwestern Arizona. Unlike most species, it can bloom in late winter or early spring. Due to its scarcity, it’s not of much value to southwestern foragers.

NOTES: According to the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, a 100 gram serving of fresh amaranth leaves (species unspecified) contains: 23 kilocalories, 91.69 grams of water, 2.46 g protein, 0.33 g fat, 4.02 g carbohydrates, 1.5 g ash, 215 mg of calcium, 50 mg phosphorus, 55 mg of magnesium, 2.32 mg iron, 0.90 mg zinc, 0.162 mg copper, 0.855 mg manganese, 0.9 µg selenium, 20 mg sodium, 611 mg potassium, 2917 IU vitamin A, 43 mg vitamin C, 1140 µg vitamin K, and other nutrients. The same source indicates that a 100 gram serving of uncooked amaranth seeds (about half a cup) contains: 371 kilocalories, 13.56 g protein, 7.02 g fat, 65.25 g carbohydrates, 159 mg of calcium, 557 mg phosphorus, 248 mg of magnesium, 7.61 mg iron, 2.87 mg zinc, 4 mg sodium, 508 mg potassium, B vitamins, 1.19 mg vitamin E, and many other nutrients. The protein in amaranth seeds is complete. It doesn’t lack the amino acid lysine, which normally limits the quality of whole grains.

IDENTIFICATION: The Amaranthus genus is represented by about 40 species in the United States, of which about 25 are found in the Southwest and Great Basin. Recognizing the genus isn’t too painful, but accurately identifying the species is difficult even for professional botanists.

Description of the Amaranthus genus: FORM annual (rarely perennial) plants about 1-20 dm tall; not succulent; not scurfy; with or without hairs; monoecious or dioecious; STEMS upright or low-lying, usually branched, never jointed; LEAVES simple; alternate; stipules absent; stalks present; blades line-, lance-, oval-, spoon- or diamond-shaped; margins usually entire; surfaces not scurfy; FLOWERS green, inconspicuous, unisexual, ovary superior, and arranged in clusters (heads, spikes, or panicles) that are often subtended by reduced leaves; individual flowers subtended by bracts (and often 0-2 additional bractlets), the bracts often thin, rigid, or awn-tipped; FEMALE flowers normally with 3-5 sepals; 1 pistil; and 2-3 stigmas; MALE flowers normally with 3-5 sepals and 3-5 stamens; FRUITS utricles thin, dry, papery, rounded, 1-seeded, often splitting along the equators, and often beaked by 2-3 persistent stigmas; SEEDS usually smooth, shiny, and dark reddish-brown to black; HABITAT throughout the Southwest over a wide range of elevations, often as weeds in disturbed places; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 greenstripe amaranth (Amaranthus acanthochiton): leaves Castetter (1935-a p. 10, cited as Acanthochiton wrightii). #2 white amaranth (Amaranthus albus): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 824). #3 mat amaranth (Amaranthus blitoides): leaves Couplan (pp. 123-124), and Ebeling (p. 824); seeds Couplan (pp. 123-124) and Ebeling (p. 824). #4 red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus): leaves and seeds Couplan (pp. 123-124). #5 fringed amaranth (Amaranthus fimbriatus): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 825). #6 slim amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 825). #7 Palmer’s amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri): leaves and seeds Couplan (pp. 123-124), Ebeling (p. 825), Hodgson (pp. 77-80), and Nabhan (pp. 93-104). #8 Powell’s amaranth (Amaranthus powellii): leaves and seeds Couplan (pp. 123-124) and Ebeling (p. 825). #9 common amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus): leaves and seeds Couplan (pp. 123-124) and Ebeling (p. 825). #10 Torrey’s amaranth (Amaranthus torreyi): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 825). #11 Watson’s amaranth (Amaranthus watsonii): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 825).

Saltbrushes

Saltweeds, Oraches, and Scales

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Atriplex genus. The Atriplex genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: #1 silverscale (Atriplex argentea Nutt.). #2 fourwing saltbrush (Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.). #3 shadscale or spiny saltbrush (Atriplex confertifolia (Torr. & Frém.) S. Watson). #4 wheelscale (Atriplex elegans (Moq.) D. Dietr.). #5 garden orache (Atriplex hortensis L.). #6 quailbrush, lenscale, or big saltbrush (Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) S. Watson). #7 mound, silver, or Navajo saltbrush (Atriplex obovata Moq.). #8 spreading saltbrush, spearleaf orache, or spearscale (Atriplex patula L.). #9 cattle spinach or desert saltbrush (Atriplex polycarpa (Torr.) S. Watson). #10 Powell’s orache or saltweed (Atriplex powellii S. Watson). #11 tumbling or redscale saltweed (Atriplex rosea L.). #12 stalked orache or sack saltbrush (Atriplex saccaria S. Watson). #13 Australian, creeping, or berry saltbrush (Atriplex semibaccata R. Br.). #14 bractscale (Atriplex serenana A. Nelson ex Abrams). #15 Torrey’s saltbrush (Atriplex torreyi (S. Watson) S. Watson). #16 wedgescale (Atriplex truncata (Torr. ex S. Watson) A. Gray). #17 Wright’s saltbrush (Atriplex wrightii S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Members of the Atriplex genus tend to accumulate oxalates, nitrates, selenium, sulfur, saponins, phytotoxins, and other harmful compounds.

Species with edible leaves include: #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14 and 17. Species with edible seeds include: #1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16 and 17. A few species provide other parts that can be eaten including the flowers of species #2 and the fruits of species #1 and #13. Excavations of archaeological sites in the Four Corners region indicate that earlier civilizations valued the seeds of various Atriplex species (Dunmire and Tierney 1997 p. 153). Leaves were also valued. Seeds of Atriplex species are contained within dry fruit structures called utricles. These husk-like protective structures can be weaker than paper or tougher than bulletproof jackets. They’re often winged and their integrity determines how easy or how difficult isolating the seeds will be. Each utricle potentially contains one seed. Sometimes the seeds are small in relation to the utricles. Other times the seeds are well developed. Saltbrushes are reliable seed producers and tolerant of salty conditions. Most plants cannot endure salty conditions. Saltbrushes overcame this limitation by developing mechanisms to dispose of excess salt, such as excreting it through leaves or storing it within specialized compartments. From a forager’s perspective, this means that the leaves, especially fresh leaves, will most likely taste salty. Saltbrush leaves are often covered with visible salt, so there’s no mystery about where the name came from. Rinsing only removes surface salts. Salts stored deep within the leaves are unaffected by rinsing. Even cooking won’t eliminate all the salts. Based on the species sampled for this reference, herbaceous species are generally better than shrubby species as a source of green leafy vegetables.

Silverscale (A. argentea) is found throughout much of the western United States. It’s a perennial herb that blooms from late summer to early autumn and produces seeds until temperatures become too cold. The leaves and young fruits of silverscale were eaten by the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. These parts were boiled alone or boiled with other items available at the time. They were also used as seasonings to impart a salty flavor to various items. Northern bands of Paiute Indians prepared the ground, parched seeds into porridge.

Fourwing saltbrush (A. canescens) shrubs are easy to recognize by observing the dry, papery, 4-winged fruits standing in contrast to the surrounding landscape. These distinctive fruits are difficult to process. The leaves are much easier to process, but they taste awful. Fresh leaves contain oxalates and other unhealthful compounds. They need to be cooked and they should only be eaten in moderation. After boiling, the flavor is somewhat like canned spinach rolled in a pile of salt. The “broth” (wastewater) is light green and saturated with irritating compounds that burn the throat. Fourwing saltbrush shrubs are abundant, leafy, thornless, and either male or female. The 4-winged fruits mature in late autumn. Only the wings are papery. The husks enclosing the seeds are like bulletproof jackets. The husks greatly complicate the task of isolating the seeds. Exactly how Native Americans processed the fruits to obtain the seeds is rarely discussed. No effective method was hereby determined. Eating the fruits raw is a bad idea due to the sharp fibers. Soaking the fruits in water doesn’t adequately soften the fibers. Even thorough boiling barely softens them. Boiling fruits have a sweet, woody, grain-like aroma marked with an odd accent suggesting a tire factory or some kind of medical product. Cooked fruits have a matching flavor, along with a harsh overtone. Processing methods described under shadscale can be applied to fourwing saltbrush, but they’re not as effective, mainly due to the sharp fibers and more flexible nature of fourwing saltbrush fruits. Even if the wings are burned off, fibers protruding from the husks often endure. Pounding the fruits and sifting out the debris tends to result in a collection of “chaff flour” rather than seed flour. Actual seeds are brown with whitish interiors. Fourwing saltbrush is a native shrub found throughout the Southwest, but its value to foragers is subject to debate.

Shadscale (A. confertifolia) is a native shrub that supposedly provided one of the most important seed crops for Native Americans living in the Great Basin, and the leaves were supposedly eaten fresh or cooked. Since fresh shadscale leaves have a disagreeable flavor, cooking is recommended. Eating these leaves fresh causes an uncomfortable burning sensation in the mouth and throat due to excessive amounts of oxalates, saponins, and other irritants. Cooked leaves also cause a burning sensation, but it’s not as intense. Shadscale seeds are a better resource than the leaves, but utilizing these seeds is not without complications. In reference to the seeds and to the Goshiute Indians of eastern Nevada, Ralph Chamberlin wrote, “The seeds were formerly eaten, this and other species of Atriplex forming one of the most important sources of seed food.” Other authors make the same assertion. Shadscale seeds are pitifully small and the protective husks are relatively thick. Actual seeds are brown with whitish interiors and weakly coiled. The fruits begin to develop in midsummer and mature in autumn. Processing the fruits to obtain the seeds is complicated by the same factors seen in fourwing saltbrush fruits, but the complications are not as extreme. Shadscale fruits have softer wings with weaker fibers. New fruits have tough wings, but the wings eventually become brittle and easy to remove. The sharp fibers cursing fourwing saltbrush fruits are not a problem in shadscale fruits. Chaff is very irritating in both species, so care should be taken to protect the eyes and lungs if the fruits are winnowed. The most effective, or “least ineffective,” method of preparation is to: break off the wings (tougher wings can be burned off), boil the seeds while still in the husks, drain the cooking water, and then chew the seeds out of the husks. Fibrous debris can be spit out. Alternatively, after draining the cooking water, the husks can be: pounded to expose the seeds, placed in clean water, further boiled, mashed to release the dissolved starches, and then filtered to remove the debris. This produces golden-yellow broth. Simmering shadscale fruits have a sweet, woody, grain-like aroma. Cooked fruits have a matching flavor. Sweetness is more pronounced than saltiness. It’s an agreeable flavor, but some harsh overtones can be expected. The texture is considerably less agreeable and comparable to coarsely ground wood chips or sawdust, unless the husks are removed. If the husks are removed, the texture is soft. Other methods of preparation tested for this reference were less effective. Pounding the fruits and sifting out the debris resulted in a collection of “chaff flour” rather than seed flour. It didn’t appear to be a promising technique. A percentage of fruits contain no seeds, so checking a few fruits before gathering a supply is wise. Except for abundance, shadscale seems to lack all the qualities of “harvest-class” wild foods.

Wheelscale (A. elegans) is a native, herbaceous annual of the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts that produces fairly good leaves. Although leaves of other species were more esteemed, wheelscale leaves of any age taste mild enough to eat fresh. The flavor isn’t overly salty, acrid, or alkaline, but a trace of bitterness characteristic of the goosefoot subfamily is noticeable. It’s an odd accent, but it’s not unpleasant. Wheelscale leaves make an excellent potherb. Gathering is best done by stripping the leaves off the stems with a swift downward motion. If older plants are gathered using this technique, some developing fruits may end up in the collection. A collection of pure leaves would be preferable, but trying to gather individual leaves would be tedious. All parts of young plants are soft, so gathering young plants is preferable to gathering old plants. Identifying wheelscale is easy when the wheel-like fruits are present. Wheelscale can bloom anytime from spring to autumn and is frequently associated with saline habitats in creosote communities.

Garden orache (A. hortensis) is native to Europe, where it’s been a popular vegetable for several centuries. It was also popular in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries until spinach became more popular (Munro pp. 67-69). It’s still cultivated to a limited extent on both continents in modern times. Southwestern foragers are most likely to find garden orache around agricultural areas in the northern half of the Southwest in summer or autumn.

Quailbrush (A. lentiformis) produces rusty-brown seeds that are reasonably easy to gather and process. Flavor is the main problem with quailbrush seeds. Threshing the shrubs effectively releases thousands of utricles (dry fruit structures). Each utricle contains up to one seed. Quailbrush utricles are papery, brittle, and helplessly weak compared to those of other species. Vigorous rubbing between the fingers breaks them into flaky powder and releases the seeds. Winnowing eliminates the flaky powder, but the chaff also consists of broken stems that refuse to separate peacefully. Bits of broken stems weigh about the same as the seeds. Winnowing also eliminates any bugs still fighting for the seeds, but it won’t eliminate seeds already damaged by bugs. Quailbrush seeds are frequently perforated with tiny boring holes made by various insects. Sifting out thousands of bad seeds would be impractical, so cooking is a wise precaution. Raw seeds taste awful, similar to whole grains spiked with terrible bitterness and a musty tobacco aftertaste. Alkali flavors are also apparent underneath the extreme astringency. The raw texture is crunchy and easily chewable without preparation. Boiling pure seeds in two changes of water is the minimum recommendation. Quailbrush seeds cook fast, about 5-10 minutes. Longer cooking is only necessary to improve the flavor rather than soften the seeds. Boiling reduces the alkalinity and astringency to the point where quailbrush seeds should pass for palatable. The leaves taste about the same as those of cattle spinach (A. polycarpa) described below, which taste absolutely dreadful. Quailbrush is a native shrub that grows abundantly along watercourses in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, where Native Americans once gathered the seeds in November and December. Some tribes considered the seeds to be a “starvation food” suitable for consumption only when more preferable foods became scarce.

Mound saltbrush (A. obovata) is a small, shrubby, native species found primarily in the greater Four Corners region. It blooms from late summer to early autumn and produces seeds until temperatures become too cold. Various groups of Native Americans boiled the leaves of this species to consume as vegetables.

Spearleaf orache (A. patula) is an herbaceous, Eurasian species with leaves that are green on both sides. Although these leaves may look like potential salad material, they taste terribly acrid. When eaten fresh, the flavor is spinach-like, salty, and searing hot. Boiling offers a substantial improvement, enough to render the leaves palatable in moderation. Large quantities can still be irritating. Cooking the leaves alone is preferable to adding them directly to soups. Like the leaves, the seeds are cursed with a terribly acrid flavor. Thorough processing is required to render the seeds palatable. Boiling yields a foamy broth with a grain-like aroma. A change of cooking water will probably be necessary. Grinding the seeds prior to boiling facilitates the release of saponins, salts, tannins, and other undesirable compounds. After enough boiling, the seeds become reasonably palatable. Harsh accents can be expected, but the flavor is predominantly grain-like. The resulting porridge is black, chewy, and similar to quinoa. Considering how easily the seeds can be harvested, any mild bite in flavor is a small price to pay for a hearty meal. Chaff poses no problems. It easily blows away. Two types of seeds are normally present: brown and black. The seeds also differ in size and orientation (horizontal versus vertical). Spearleaf orache is widely scattered across northern North America. It blooms from late summer to early autumn and is best utilized as a source of seeds rather than leaves.

Cattle spinach (A. polycarpa) is a shrubby species native to the Southwest. Leaves of this species are generally not reported to be edible, except for a brief mention in “By the Prophets of the Earth” where Leonora Curtin (p. 67) indicates that an earlier work tells of the leaves being cooked as greens by the Hopi Indians of northeastern Arizona. Curtin also indicates that ancestors of the tribe ate the seeds when other foods became scarce. Based on the field research conducted for this reference, cattle spinach seems to be a wild food best reserved for the most desperate situations. Fresh leaves are much too acrid to consume. A throat-searing irritation extinguishes all hope of using them as salad material. Even after cooking, they barely qualify as palatable. Three changes of cooking water may be necessary to rid the leaves of irritants. Cattle spinach forms wastewater, not broth. A thick layer of foam covers the initial cooking water, and a thin layer of foam may persist even after several changes of cooking water. Boiling should continue until all foam disappears. This may take a while. Finely chopping the leaves prior to boiling facilitates the release of irritants. Adding the leaves directly to soup would be a major culinary misjudgment. Cattle spinach leaves are small. Collecting a supply is tedious. Old leaves readily detach from the branches. Young leaves are more securely attached and more palatable. Leaves of any age are silvery-green. Determining age isn’t always so easy. Young leaves are found on new branch tips. These new tips are soft and flexible, and usually break when gathering the leaves. They don’t pose any mechanical problems after cooking, except possibly for some annoying fibers. Taste is the problem, not texture. Even after all the processing in the world, cattle spinach tastes unappealing. Any spinach-like suggestions are rudely overpowered by distasteful characteristics. Eating more than a serving will likely cause irritation, though considerably less irritation than the raw leaves. Based on the literature reviewed, cattle spinach was used as a source of seeds more often than it was used as a source of leaves. Seeds of cattle spinach taste unpleasant. A starchy flavor combined with salty, woody, and terribly acrid overtones seems to best describe the seeds. Overall, cattle spinach is best left for the cattle.

Powell’s saltweed (A. powellii) is a native, herbaceous species found in alkaline low-lands from northern Arizona and New Mexico to Canada. It blooms from late summer to early autumn and produces seeds until temperatures become too cold. Several groups of Native Americans boiled the leaves of this species to consume as vegetables. In addition, the seeds were ground with corn, mixed with water, formed into patties, steamed, and eaten by the Zuni Indians of New Mexico.

Tumbling saltweed (A. rosea) is an introduced annual found throughout the western United States. It’s native to Europe and western Asia, yet Native Americans incorporated it into their diets after it became available in North America. Seeds of tumbling saltweed were ground into porridge by the Navajo Indians of northeastern Arizona. Apparently, the leaves are not reported to be edible, and that’s not surprising considering the flavor. Tumbling saltweed leaves taste harsh, even after boiling. The flavor has an alliance with spinach, but its harsh nature is unfortunate. The seeds might taste better, but they were not sampled for this reference. Tumbling saltweed blooms primarily in summer, so the seeds can be expected in autumn.

Sack saltbrush (A. saccaria) is native to the Great Basin and Four Corners region. It’s an herbaceous species that was utilized as a leafy vegetable by the Hopi Indians of northeastern Arizona.

Australian saltbrush (A. semibaccata) is a low-lying subshrub or multi-stemmed perennial found in disturbed places from southern California to southern Texas. As its name suggests, it is native to Australia. Unlike most species in the United States, it has bright red fruits (utricles) that remain fleshy at maturity. Australian saltbrush, also known as berry saltbrush in reference to these “berry-like” fruits, can bloom anytime from spring to autumn, so the fruits are available over an equally long period. The Cahuilla Indians of southern California ate these fruits fresh.

Bractscale (A. serenana) is a low-lying, native annual found primarily in southern California. It blooms anytime from spring to autumn. The Kawaiisu Indians called this plant “siikatibi” and utilized the leaves as a potherb.

Torrey’s saltbrush (A. torreyi) is a shrubby species native to southern California and the western Great Basin. It blooms from spring to autumn in alkaline lowlands. The Kamia Indians of Imperial Valley in southern California called this shrub “apai” and prepared the seeds as porridge.

Wedgescale (A. truncata) is an herbaceous species native to the Intermountain Region, which is roughly Utah and Nevada and the adjacent areas. It blooms in summer and autumn. The Goshiute Indians of that region called wedgescale “apo” and gathered the seeds to use as food.

Wright’s saltweed (A. wrightii) is an herbaceous species native primarily to southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Unlike many members of the Atriplex genus, it frequently blooms in spring. The Pima Indians of Arizona called this plant “onk iivagi” (salt greens) and esteemed the leaves as potherbs.

NOTES: Despite exhaustive efforts, the Atriplex genus was ultimately a disappointment. I have no regrets about those efforts. That’s the part I enjoy. It was the outcome of those efforts that disappointed me and diminished my expectations of this genus. Saltbrushes are often described as staple food items in books about edible plants, so my expectations were high. After all the work, I could only conclude that saltbrushes (with few exceptions) are either terribly unappealing or impossible to process. Saltbrushes dominate the southwestern landscape, so the difficulties involved with utilizing them as food are unfortunate. Perhaps my techniques were flawed, or perhaps the knowledge of processing saltbrushes has been lost in time. In any case, answers to these questions seem to be missing in ethnobotanical literature. Saltbrushes are frequently mentioned, but they’re seldom discussed in any detail, especially in regard to getting the seeds out of the husks (bractlets). The general lack of discussion inadvertently conveys a message, in the same way that silence can be as “loud” as words in a conversation. It’s likely that some authors overrated the importance of saltbrushes. When I read that something was a staple food and despite my best efforts I’m barely able to procure a single meal of it, I’m compelled to figure out why it’s so difficult to procure. I tried many of the dominant Atriplex species, but many more species exist than those that I tried. Botanists have described over 100 species, most of which have no record of edibility. Perhaps some of them will taste like the better-quality species I described above, or perhaps not. It’s always good to be hopeful, but based on my experiences, species of the Atriplex genus were a source of disappointment rather than inspiration.

IDENTIFICATION: Approximately 115 species of the Atriplex genus are found in the United States, almost all of which are native to the West. The pair of bractlets enclosing the seeds is a key feature of the genus. Other important features are noted in the following description. A few species are rare, but most are common.

Description of saltbrushes (the Atriplex genus): FORM herbaceous plants or woody shrubs; monoecious or dioecious; STEMS not jointed; LEAVES generally simple, alternate, and sessile to short-stalked; blades well developed rather than reduced to scales; margins entire, toothed, or lobed; surfaces often with mealy coatings (due to simple inflated hairs that become scurfy upon drying); FLOWERS inconspicuous and unisexual; MALE flowers with 3-5 calyx lobes, 3-5 stamens, and no bractlets; FEMALE flowers without a perianth (petals or sepals) and enclosed by 2 bractlets; pistils 1; style branches 2; FRUITS utricles enclosed by 2 bractlets that remain closed at maturity; SEEDS mostly oriented vertically; HABITAT diverse, best represented in alkaline lowlands; found throughout the Southwest; blooming primarily in late summer.

REFERENCES: #1 silverscale (Atriplex argentea): leaves Castetter (1935-a p. 18); leaves, fruits, and seeds Moerman (p. 59). #2 fourwing saltbrush (Atriplex canescens): leaves Ebeling (p. 823); flowers Moerman (p. 60); seeds Chamberlin (p. 363), Cheatham (p. 167), and Rhode (pp. 48-49). #3 shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia): leaves Cheatham (p. 168) and Ebeling (p. 823); seeds Chamberlin (p. 363), Cheatham (p. 167), and Rhode (p. 50). #4 wheelscale (Atriplex elegans): leaves Cheatham (p. 168) and Ebeling (p. 823); seeds Ebeling (p. 823). #5 garden orache (Atriplex hortensis): leaves and seeds Facciola (p. 76). #6 quailbrush (Atriplex lentiformis): seeds Campbell (p. 166), Castetter (1935-a p. 23), and Ebeling (p. 823). #7 silver saltbrush (Atriplex obovata): leaves Cheatham (p. 168). #8 spearleaf orache (Atriplex patula): leaves Ebeling (p. 823) and Facciola (p. 76); seeds Ebeling (p. 823) and Facciola (p. 76). #9 cattle spinach (Atriplex polycarpa): seeds Campbell (p. 166), Curtin (p. 67), Ebeling (p. 823), and Minnis (2000 p. 222). #10 Powell’s saltweed (Atriplex powellii): leaves (Moerman p. 61); seeds Castetter (1935-a p. 22). #11 tumbling saltweed (Atriplex rosea): seeds Cheatham (p. 167) and Moerman (p. 61). #12 stalked orache (Atriplex saccaria): leaves Cheatham (p. 168) and Moerman (p. 61). #13 Australian saltbrush (Atriplex semibaccata): leaves and fruit structures Facciola (p. 76); fruit structures Bean (p. 45). #14 bractscale (Atriplex serenana): leaves Ebeling (p. 823) and Zigmond (p. 15). #15 Torrey’s saltbrush (Atriplex torreyi): seeds Ebeling (p. 823), Gifford (p. 24), and Moerman (p. 61). #16 wedgescale (Atriplex truncata): seeds Chamberlin (p. 363) and Ebeling (p. 823). #17 Wright’s saltbrush (Atriplex wrightii): leaves Kearney (1960 p. 258) and Rea (pp. 201-202); seeds Ebeling (p. 823).

Goosefoots

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Chenopodium genus. The Chenopodium genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: All species of the Chenopodium genus are edible. #1 lambsquarter or white goosefoot (Chenopodium album L.). #2 epazote, Mexican tea, or American wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides L. = Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants). #3 pitseed or netseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri Moq.). #4 oakleaf goosefoot or Jerusalem oak goosefoot (Chenopodium botrys L. = Dysphania botrys (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants). #5 strawberry blite (Chenopodium capitatum (L.) Ambrosi). #6 buttered, low, or red goosefoot (Chenopodium chenopodioides (L.) Aellen). #7 Fremont’s goosefoot (Chenopodium fremontii S. Watson). #8 fetid goosefoot (Chenopodium graveolens Willd. = Chenopodium incisum Poir. = Chenopodium cornutum (Torr.) Benth. and Hook. ex S. Watson = Dysphania graveolens (Willd.) Mosyakin & Clemants). #9 mealy goosefoot (Chenopodium incanum (S. Watson) A. Heller). #10 slimleaf or narrowleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium leptophyllum (Moq.) Nutt. ex S. Watson). #11 nettleleaf goosefoot or Australian spinach (Chenopodium murale L.). #12 Nevada goosefoot (Chenopodium nevadense Standl.). #13 desert goosefoot (Chenopodium pratericola Rydb.). #14 red goosefoot (Chenopodium rubrum L.). #15 Watson’s goosefoot (Chenopodium watsonii A. Nelson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: All species of the Chenopodium genus have edible leaves and seeds (Kirk pp. 56-57). However, strong-scented species, such as #2, 4, and 8, can be harmful when consumed in excess. Oils in epazote and the other strong-scented species contain a neurotoxic compound called ascaridole that can cause nausea, disorientation, headache, convulsions, irregular heartbeat, or coma (DiTomaso 2007 p. 612). This compound is toxic to humans, unstable when heated, and gradually destroyed when boiled in water (Nelson 1920 p. 1205). Strong-scented species have recently been segregated into the Dysphania genus. Traditionally, this genus was treated as a group within the Chenopodium genus. Archaeological evidence suggests that members of the Dysphania genus were used as medicine (Ellis p. 445). Accounts of their use as food, in either prehistoric or modern times, is rare. Southwestern foragers would be wise to avoid strong-scented species with glandular leaves and choose weak-scented species (anything other than species #2, 4, or 8) with powdery, mealy, or hairless leaves. Some species produce better leaves than others. Only leaves of mild species should be eaten, and they should be boiled to reduce the saponins and oxalates. Eating a handful of fresh goosefoot leaves can be a painful experience, and boiling doesn’t always solve the problem. The seeds are a much better resource than the leaves. Goosefoot seeds are typically dark reddish-brown, thin-walled, and surrounded by 5 persistent sepals. Seeds of certain weak-scented species were staple food items and historians speculate they were used as an article of trade. Goosefoot seeds are well worth the effort of gathering and easily rank among the most important wild foods of the Southwest. The following assessment is based on about half of the species listed above.

Lambsquarter (C. album) is found throughout the United States. It’s presumably native to Europe and considered invasive worldwide. Despite its reputation as a weed, it is cultivated as a seed crop and leafy vegetable in India (Grubben p. 178). From a historical perspective, evidence from archaeological sites in Europe suggest that lambsquarter seeds were gathered for food in the Neolithic Period (Stone Age). It’s also possible that cultivation of the plant began in that period (Simoons pp. 173-174). More recently, in the southwestern United States, the leaves and/or seeds of lambsquarter were gathered as food by the Apache, Navajo, Hopi, Pima, Kawaiisu, Paiute, and Pueblo Indians (Moerman pp. 79-80). The leaves and seeds of this species taste appealing and similar to pitseed goosefoot described below. Lambsquarter blooms in summer and produces tiny black seeds in autumn.

Epazote (Dysphania ambrosioides) is not established in the Southwest, except as an occasional escape from cultivation. Therefore, from a foraging perspective, it has essentially no value. From a culinary perspective, it makes a fine seasoning for bean, corn, squash, and other classical southwestern dishes. Epazote is sold commercially, at least to a limited extent in finer spice shops. The notes here are based on commercial rather than wild plants. Epazote swiftly eludes comparisons to other seasonings. It’s in a class of its own. Nothing can really be substituted for it. The flavor is mildly herbaceous and weakly resinous. It’s been compared to oregano, savory, tarragon, citrus, menthol, creosote, skunks, sweat, varnish, and turpentine. Based on the aroma of dried epazote, all these comparisons seem off target, but fresh and dried plants often smell very different. Dried epazote, in my estimation, has an aroma akin to that of herbariums (places that house collections of dried plants), which smell somewhat like hay. The aroma of fresh epazote is probably more closely aligned with the colorful descriptive terms noted above. The unceremonious name of this plant derives from a combination of old Aztec words (epatl tzotl) that translate into “skunk sweat,” in reference to the rank aroma. Epazote is also called wormseed, in reference to the seeds being used as a source of ascaridole-rich oil, which was used to kill hookworms and roundworms in humans and animals in the early 19th century until safer options became available. Seeds of this species are medicine, not food. Only the leaves have any culinary potential, and these are best used sparingly. Despite all the negative reviews, epazote leaves have a wonderful flavor that artfully compliments Mexican cuisine.

Pitseed goosefoot (C. berlandieri) is a top-class species. It’s native to much of North America, including the southwestern United States. Archaeological evidence indicates that it was gathered from the wild in the eastern United States over 8,500 years ago and brought under cultivation at least 3,800 years ago in that region (Smith 2007 pp. XIII-XIV). It’s virtually identical to another species called quinoa (C. quinoa) that was presumably the species domesticated around the same time in the Andes of South America (Zeder p. 43). Fresh leaves of pitseed goosefoot lack the musty, hay-like, pond-like, and fish-like aromas so prevalent in the genus. They’re mild enough to serve as salad material, and excellent as potherbs. Fresh leaves taste similar to spinach combined with a little too much salt. The texture is also like spinach, although slightly firmer. The real value of pitseed goosefoot is the seeds. Sometime in autumn, the stem tips become masses of tiny seeds that are easy to harvest, easy to process, nutritious, delicious, and free of irritating chaff. Seed color varies from tan to reddish-brown to nearly black. Fresh seeds may be soft enough to eat without processing, but cooking is usually required. Toasting and boiling are fine ways to prepare this ancient food. Toasting eliminates any musty characters and produces a fantastic meal. A lid should be used when toasting to prevent the seeds from popping out of the pan. Boiling produces a delicious porridge with a hint of natural sweetness. A combination of toasting and boiling produces the best results. These seeds are perfect for any meal. From a nutritional perspective, they probably have a nutrient profile approximating that of quinoa seeds, which is provided below. Overall, pitseed goosefoot is a remarkable plant that has all the attributes of a “harvest-class” wild food.

Oakleaf goosefoot (Dysphania botrys) produces oak-shaped leaves that (based on flavor) seem perfectly suitable for soups or salads. However, they may be harmful, and the seeds are probably more harmful for the same reasons noted under epazote. Oakleaf goosefoot is a strong-scented species native to Europe and Asia. References to its edibility are almost nonexistent. Apparently, the Bantu of Africa, or at least some groups within this diverse assemblage of peoples, consumed the leaves like spinach (Small 2006 p. 298). Based on my own experiences with oakleaf goosefoot in the Superstition Mountains of Arizona, it’s an agreeable wild food. Fresh leaves and cooked seeds taste fine. Everything I’ve tried so far in the Dysphania genus was allied in flavor. Epazote was definitely milder, but that was based on cultivated plants packaged as seasonings rather than wild plants. Oakleaf goosefoot and fetid goosefoot were considerably more robust. Leaves of these two species tasted similar to ragweed and the seeds tasted similar to quinoa. Many authors advise against eating strong-scented species. If that advice is disregarded, thoroughly cooking the various parts on high heat will help break down some of the harmful constituents. Overall, oakleaf goosefoot is a wild food of questionable value to southwestern foragers.

Strawberry blite (C. capitatum) is native to temperate regions of North America, including mountainous areas of the southwestern United States. It was an important source of seeds for the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada (Chamberlin p. 366), and it’s cultivated as a vegetable in Europe (Hanelt pp. 248-249). I never found this species, but wild food legend Bradford Angier describes the leaves as spinach-like, good in salads, and high in vitamins A and C. He also describes the fruits (seed heads) as rather tasteless, but nutritious. Southwestern foragers will most likely find this plant in summer or autumn. It’s red, berry-like, fruit-seed clusters set it apart from most species.

Buttered goosefoot (C. chenopodioides) is a low-lying, weak-scented, hairless species native to western North America, particularly around lakes or in fields. It was utilized as a source of seeds by the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada, and possibly by various native peoples of the Pacific states. I never found this species nor any descriptive accounts that detailed the flavor. Buttered goosefoot normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Fremont’s goosefoot (C. fremontii) is an upright species native to western North America. Considering its widespread use as food by Native Americans, its importance should not be underestimated. Fremont’s goosefoot produces low-quality leaves and high-quality seeds. Fresh leaves have an odd aroma and a terribly acrid flavor. A hint of spinach may be noticeable under the salty overtone and burning sensation. Cooking doesn’t offer much improvement. The seeds are a much better resource. Fremont’s goosefoot seeds are easy to harvest, easy to process, nutritious, delicious, and available in quantity. Freshly harvested seeds are reddish-brown and partially enclosed within weakly attached calyces. The seeds are too hard to eat unprocessed, but cooking effectively softens them. Cooking also eliminates any offensive odors and flavors. Any method of cooking yields good results. Fremont’s goosefoot seeds taste virtually identical to quinoa. It’s a grain-like flavor ideal for bread, porridge, pancakes, or any recipes calling for flour. The seeds are sufficiently dry at maturity to store for several months and well worth the effort of harvesting. Fremont’s goosefoot is common and normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Fetid goosefoot (Dysphania graveolens) is a small, upright, strong-scented species that’s native to the southwestern United States. Although it’s abundant, records of it being used as food by Native Americans are scarce. Apparently, the Hopi Indians of northeastern Arizona ate the flowers and added the seeds to cornmeal (Castetter 1935-a pp. 21-22, cited as Chenopodium cornutum). Based on my own experiences, fetid goosefoot seems to be an excellent wild food. However, due to the presence of harmful compounds and the historical use of the various parts as anthelmintics (medicines that kill intestinal worms), consumption is not recommended. All parts of any species in the Dysphania genus should be considered suspect. Fetid goosefoot produces sticky, aromatic, resinous leaves. Despite the derogatory name, the leaves (in my opinion) really aren’t that fetid. The aroma is certainly powerful, but it’s neither attractive nor offensive. Fresh leaves taste mild enough for salads. Resins covering the surfaces impart an acrid overtone, but it’s usually within tolerable limits. Fetid goosefoot leaves taste more like ragweed than spinach, lettuce, or even other goosefoots. Ragweed is unrelated, but the flavors are clearly aligned. Boiling yields a broth of similar character. Based on flavor, fetid goosefoot leaves serve well as potherbs. Resinous overtones transfer to the broth, but remain stronger in the leaves. Fetid goosefoot is a dominant plant of the southwestern mountains that produces extraordinary amounts of seeds. Raw seeds are too hard to simply chew. They need to be cooked. Toasting or boiling produces good results. Toasted seeds acquire a delicately crunchy texture and resinous flavor. Boiled seeds become mushy and less resinous, especially after a change of cooking water. As with most goosefoot seeds, the flavor clearly suggests quinoa. Fetid goosefoot seeds are easy to harvest and easy to process. Maturing plants turn from green to red to brown, and become brittle sometime during this transition in autumn. Seeds persist for several weeks, even months, so there’s no rush to harvest this resource. However, keep in mind that fetid goosefoot is a questionable resource that may be harmful, especially when eaten in quantity.

Mealy goosefoot (C. incanum) is a weak-scented species native to the central and southwestern United States. It was an important source of food for the Apache, Hopi, Navajo, and Paiute Indians (Moerman p. 80 or Sturtevant 1986 p. 73). The leaves were prepared as vegetables and the seeds were ground into flour. Seed flour was made into bread or porridge, or stored for the winter. Mealy is a reference to the leaf coating. Leaves of many species in the Chenopodium genus have a mealy or dusty coating. The presence or absence of this feature has little to do with flavor quality. Southwestern foragers will most likely find mealy goosefoot blooming in summer and fruiting in autumn.

Slimleaf goosefoot (C. leptophyllum) is a common species native to western North America. It ranks among the most important plants utilized as food by Native Americans of that region. Slimleaf goosefoot produces relatively good leaves and excellent seeds. As the name indicates, the leaves are slim, so gathering a supply may take a while. Fresh leaves may be too acrid for salads, but cooking should neutralize any harsh overtones. The seeds are a better resource. Slimleaf goosefoot seeds are comparable to those of pitseed goosefoot described above, which are comparable to quinoa. The only major difference between these seeds and quinoa is color. Quinoa seeds are tan, while slimleaf goosefoot seeds are mostly reddish-brown to black. Like most species, slimleaf goosefoot normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Nettleleaf goosefoot (C. murale) is a weak-scented species native to Europe, Asia, and Africa. It’s a fairly distinctive species that’s now found nearly worldwide in warm climates, including the southwestern United States. The name refers to the shape of the leaves rather than the stinging hairs of nettles. This goosefoot is free of such hairs. Although introduced, as early as 1904 the Pima Indians of Arizona had incorporated the seeds of this species into their diets. They called the plant “kaf.” Other Native Americans, including the Cahuilla, Mojave, and Tohono O’odham (Papago), utilized the shoots and/or leaves as food. Southwestern foragers will most likely find nettleleaf goosefoot blooming in summer and fruiting in autumn.

Nevada goosefoot (C. nevadense) is a weak-scented species native to the western Great Basin. The seeds were a staple food of the Paiute Indians. Nevada goosefoot inhabits sandy, gravelly, salty, or chalky areas in greasewood, sagebrush, and juniper communities. It normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Desert goosefoot (C. pratericola) is a weak-scented species native to the central and western United States. The Pima Indians of Arizona gathered the leaves to consume as vegetables. Desert goosefoot inhabits sandy or salty soils in sagebrush or juniper communities. It normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Red goosefoot (C. rubrum) is another species native to western North America. The Goshiute Indians called this plant “ontimpiwatsip” and prepared the seeds as porridge. It’s a weak-scented species of open areas and salt marshes. Only the seeds are reported to be edible. I had the opportunity to try the leaves and seeds from colonies in the Tule Valley of western Utah. Based on those colonies, red goosefoot leaves are unsuitable as salad material and barely suitable as potherbs. Leaves gathered from other regions where the soil quality is better may taste milder. The leaves I sampled were thick, leathery, hairless, deeply-toothed, and terribly acrid. Boiling offered an improvement, but the improvement was insufficient. Boiling also turned the leaf texture to mush. Serving-size portions of these leaves were tolerable, but meal-size portions were unappealing. Red goosefoot is best utilized for its seeds, which are produced in abundance, easy to harvest, easy to process, and comparable to the best seeds of the genus. Red goosefoot seeds are delicious and free of harsh characters. Only the leaves taste harsh. Like most species, red goosefoot blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

Watson’s goosefoot (C. watsonii) is a strong-scented species native to Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and the surrounding areas. The Navajo Indians of Arizona gathered the seeds to use as food. Watson’s goosefoot inhabits woodlands, shrublands, badlands, prairies, and disturbed areas. Like most species in the Chenopodium genus, it normally blooms in summer and fruits in autumn.

NOTES: Goosefoots, or maybe I should say “goosefeet,” rank among the best plants in the Southwest for seeds. Unlike most plants, they do well in poor-quality soils. They’re frequently the dominant species, especially after fires or other disturbances. Leaves of the species I sampled varied in flavor more than the seeds, and the seeds were always a better wild food. I gathered the various species from a diversity of locations including: the Patagonia Mountains of southeastern Arizona, the Mogollon Mountains of western New Mexico, Otter Creek and Last Chance Canyon in Utah, the Sevier Desert, the Pinal Mountains, and many other places. Considering the abundance, ease of gathering, ease of processing, good flavor, and high nutritional value, it’s no wonder why goosefoot seeds were an important resource to Native Americans. These seeds will undoubtedly continue to be important to the human race into the foreseeable future.

A 100 gram serving (about ½ cup) of uncooked quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) seeds contains: 368 kilocalories, 13.28 g water, 14.12 g protein, 6.07 g fat, 64.16 g carbohydrates, 2.38 g ash, 47 mg calcium, 457 mg phosphorus, 197 mg magnesium, 4.57 mg iron, 3.10 mg zinc, 0.590 mg copper, 2.033 mg manganese, 8.5 µg selenium, 5 mg sodium, 563 mg potassium, and many other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

A 100 gram serving of raw lambsquarter (Chenopodium album) leaves contains: 43 kilocalories, 84.30 grams of water, 4.20 g protein, 0.80 g fat, 7.30 g carbohydrates, 3.4 g ash, 309 mg of calcium, 72 mg phosphorus, 34 mg of magnesium, 1.20 mg iron, 0.44 mg zinc, 0.293 mg copper, 0.782 mg manganese, 0.9 µg selenium, 43 mg sodium, 452 mg potassium, 11,600 IU vitamin A, 80 mg vitamin C, and many other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: About 50 species of the Chenopodium genus are found in the United States. Exact species are difficult to identify and the defining characteristics vary in the wild. Goosefoots normally have tiny, green, inconspicuous flowers with 5 calyx lobes, 0 petals, 5 stamens, and 2 thread-like stigmas. Not all species conform to this configuration. Most species are scurfy and malodorous. Odor alone can often identify goosefoots. Calyx lobes always lack wings, but they’re often keeled and tend to wrap around the seed-like fruits, which are called achenes or utricles. The “fruit layers” (collectively called the pericarp) are dry, papery, and either adherent or not adherent to the seeds. “Cheno” means goose, and “podium” means foot, in reference to the leaf shape of certain species.

Description of goosefoots (the Chenopodium genus): FORM low-lying to upright plants; often scurfy, resinous, or malodorous; STEMS not jointed, not fleshy, and not spiny; LEAVES simple; alternate; with or without stalks; blades linear, lanceolate, elliptic, triangular, or rhombic; margins entire, toothed, or lobed; surfaces hairy, hairless, scurfy, or resinous; FLOWERS green, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like clusters that typically form spikes or panicles emerging from the axils or terminals; bractlets 0; sepals 3-5 (usually 5), united at the bases; petals 0; styles 1; stigmas 2-5 (usually 2) and thread-like; stamens 2-5 (usually 5); FRUITS achenes or utricles; often partially wrapped by the persistent calyces; pericarp papery and either adherent or not adherent to the seeds; SEEDS red, brown, or black; lens- or globe-shaped; oriented vertically or horizontally; HABITAT widespread and associated with many different floristic communities; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: Kirk (pp. 56-57) indicates that the leaves and seeds of all species in the Chenopodium genus are “more or less” edible. #1 lambsquarters (Chenopodium album): leaves and seeds Couplan (pp. 116-117) and Ebeling (pp. 146-147). #2 epazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides): leaves and seeds Ebeling (pp. 531-532). #3 pitseed goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 823) and Facciola (p. 77). #4 oakleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium botrys): leaves Small (2006 p. 298). #5 strawberry blite (Chenopodium capitatum): leaves Angier (p. 216) and Facciola (p. 77); fruits Angier (p. 216); seeds Chamberlin (p. 366). #6 low goosefoot (Chenopodium chenopodioides): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 823) and Vizgirdas (pp. 93-94); seeds Sturtevant (1986 p. 73). #7 Fremont’s goosefoot (Chenopodium fremontii): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 823), Kirk (pp. 56-57), and Yanovski (p. 22). #8 fetid goosefoot (Chenopodium graveolens): flowers Yanovski (p. 22); seeds Castetter (1935-a pp. 21-22, cited as C. cornutum), Moerman (p. 80), and Yanovski (p. 22). #9 mealy goosefoot (Chenopodium incanum): leaves and seeds Moerman (p. 80). #10 slimleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium leptophyllum): leaves Ebeling (p. 823); seeds Chamberlin (p. 366), Ebeling (p. 823), and Yanovski (p. 22). #11 nettleleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium murale): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 823), Facciola (p. 77), and Moerman (p. 81); seeds Russell (p. 73). #12 Nevada goosefoot (Chenopodium nevadense): leaves and seeds Ebeling (p. 823); seeds Moerman (p. 81). #13 desert goosefoot (Chenopodium pratericola): leaves Moerman (p. 81). #14 red goosefoot (Chenopodium rubrum): seeds Chamberlin (p. 366). #15 Watson’s goosefoot (Chenopodium watsonii): seeds Moerman (p. 81) and Vestal (p. 25).

Winged Pigweed

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Cycloloma genus. The Cycloloma genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now considered to be a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: Winged pigweed (Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.) J. M. Coult.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Winged pigweed seeds can be used to make porridge. In reference to the Zuni Indians of New Mexico, Matilda Stevenson (p. 67) indicates that small quantities of the seeds were collected, ground, mixed with cornmeal, formed into balls or cakes, steamed, and eaten.

NOTES: Despite my best efforts, I never found winged pigweed during the fieldwork conducted for this book. Since this book is based on experience, only wild foods that I found, identified, harvested, prepared, and ate are discussed in detail.

IDENTIFICATION: The Cycloloma genus is represented by 1 species in the United States, primarily of the Great Plains.

Description of winged pigweed (Cycloloma atriplicifolium): FORM native, annual plant about 10-50 cm tall with a rounded appearance; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or the bases tapering to stalks; blades oblanceolate and about 1-8 cm long; margins coarsely wavy-toothed (sinuate-dentate); tips not bristly; FLOWERS regular, perfect or pistillate, ovary superior, and arranged in spikes of head-like clusters that branch to form intricate panicles; bracts 0; sepals 5, keeled, and united at the bases; petals 0; styles 3; stamens 5; FRUITS utricles hairy, enclosed by the persistent calyces, broadly winged around the equators, and not splitting open; SEEDS black, smooth, oriented horizontally, and not adherent to the fruit walls; HABITAT sandy areas scattered about the Southwest and Great Plains; blooming May to September.

REFERENCES: Winged pigweed (Cycloloma atriplicifolium): seeds Couplan (p. 119), Kirk (p. 57), and Stevenson (p. 67).

Fireweed Kochia

and related species

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Kochia genus. This genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: Fireweed kochia, common kochia, mock cypress, summer cypress, broom cypress, or Mexican burningbush (Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. = Bassia scoparia (L.) A. J. Scott).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Leaves and seeds of fireweed kochia are reported to be edible, at least in moderation. Fireweed kochia has a high requirement for nitrogen, so the herbaceous parts tend to accumulate nitrates, especially when growing around agricultural areas that use fertilizers. This plant can also accumulate various elements and pollutants from the soil that are detrimental to health. It should never be gathered around industrial areas. Oxalates are another problem. Cooking is unlikely to eliminate all these problems, so the plants should be gathered from good-quality soils and consumed in moderation. Compared to other family members, fireweed kochia is relatively nontoxic to grazing animals, unless it constitutes more than 50% of an animal’s diet for several weeks. Since animals and people have different physiology, animal studies don’t necessarily apply to people, but they do serve as a way to gauge the risk of consuming wild plants in large quantities.

Fireweed kochia (K. scoparia) is a common weed of disturbed areas. No parts genuinely qualify as palatable. Terribly acrid flavors curse the leaves and seeds. Cooking fails to adequately improve the flavor. Harsh overtones remain strong even after several changes of cooking water. Any harsh-tasting parts should not be consumed. During the extensive fieldwork conducted for this reference, numerous attempts to render the seeds palatable were regrettably unsuccessful. Seeds of fireweed kochia, like those of many other members of the goosefoot subfamily, taste similar to quinoa, but the harsh overtones of fireweed kochia seeds negate any potential they have to serve as food, which is unfortunate because these plants are very common. Also see the notes.

NOTES: In Japanese cuisine, a “caviar-like” garnish called “tonburi” is prepared with fireweed kochia seeds. To prepare tonburi the greenish-black seeds are dried, boiled, soaked in cold water for about a day, hand-rubbed to remove the outer skins, and then re-soaked in a solution of water and vinegar. Tonburi was popularized in the Akita Prefecture of Japan, where the plant is known as “houkigi.” The flavor of tonburi has been described as similar to broccoli, artichokes, asparagus, or juniper fruits, and the texture somewhat crunchy as a result of the careful preparation. In my opinion, commercially prepared tonburi tastes and smells like asparagus. No harsh accents compromise the flavor. It’s far better than anything I’ve ever prepared from wild kochia seeds. Many aspects of cultivated plants, especially size, flavor, and texture, are superior to those of wild plants, which could easily explain the difference in quality. The alkaline nature of southwestern soils could also be a factor. I was hoping that wild-grown fireweed kochia seeds would be a good wild food, but they were horrible. Beyond the use of cultivated varieties in preparing tonburi, fireweed kochia is poorly known and almost absent from the ethnobotanical record.

A 100 gram serving of tonburi contains: 63 calories, 83.6 g water, 4.1 g of protein, 2.4 g of fat, 7.4 g carbohydrates, 1.8 g fiber, 0.7 g ash, 14.8 mg calcium, 112 mg of phosphorus, 4.32 mg sodium, 176 mg potassium, 1.55 mg iron, 380 IU vitamin A, 0.08 mg vitamin B1, 0.14 mg vitamin B2, 0.24 mg niacin, and 15 mg vitamin C. Source: Japan Food Analysis Center.

Two related species, American kochia (Bassia americana) and fivehorn kochia (Bassia hyssopifolia) were also on my checklist, even though they are not reported to be edible. I found both of them, but only sampled fivehorn kochia. These species have been placed in the Kochia genus at various points in history. Even today botanists disagree about what to call them. The American kochia I found was long past the ideal gathering time. Winter in the Red Rock Knolls ravaged the various parts, almost past the point of recognition. These knolls are near the Beaver River Bottoms in western Utah. The fivehorn kochia I found was also in western Utah, but much earlier in the year. Based on flavor, the leaves and seeds of fivehorn kochia are fair-quality wild foods, considerably better than those parts of fireweed kochia described above. Leaves of fivehorn kochia are tiny, hairy, and scattered along wiry stems. Most are concentrated on the lower stems. After brief boiling, they taste mild, salty, spinach-like, and slightly bitter. The broth is equally good. It’s an agreeable flavor. Gathering the leaves is difficult without inadvertently gathering the flowers. Hairs on the flowers tend to be annoying, so excluding the flowers is preferable. Like the leaves, the seeds also taste agreeable. Thorough boiling in a change of water is necessary to remove the salts, saponins, and other unwanted compounds. After boiling, the flavor is starchy and similar to quinoa. Harsh accents are nearly undetectable. Gathering and processing the seeds is fairly easy, but the unique fruit structures reluctantly release the seeds. American and fivehorn kochia are worth further investigation, but without any references to edibility, consumption cannot be recommended.

IDENTIFICATION: The Kochia genus is currently represented by 6 species in the United States, of which 4 are common in the Southwest. Fivehorn kochia (Bassia hyssopifolia) is easily distinguishable by its 5 calyx lobes each bearing a hooked spine.

Description of fireweed kochia (Kochia scoparia): FORM upright, nonnative, annual plant about 30-200 cm tall; STEMS solitary at the bases and well branched above; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or short-stalked; blades lanceolate, flat, and 3-5 veined; margins entire; tips not bristly; surfaces hairy; FLOWERS green, inconspicuous, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in spikes; calyx lobes 5, becoming narrow wings in fruit; petals 0; stigmas 2 (rarely 3); stamens 5; FRUITS utricles enclosed by the persistent calyces; HABITAT disturbed areas throughout the Southwest and elsewhere; blooming July to November; fruiting into winter.

REFERENCES: Fireweed kochia (Kochia scoparia = Bassia scoparia): leaves Couplan (pp. 119-120); seeds Couplan (pp. 119-120), Duke (p. 116), and Vizgirdas (p. 94).

Winterfat

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Krascheninnikovia genus. This genus was former- ly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now considered to be a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: Winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata (Pursh) A. Meeuse & A. Smit = Eurotia lanata (Pursh) Moq. = Ceratoides lanata (Pursh) J. T. Howell).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Winterfat leaves can accumulate selenium. Various parts are supposedly edible after cooking, but very few references confirm any edible uses for winterfat (except as forage for grazing animals). None of the references cited in the bibliography specify which parts can be eaten. Only the leaves were sampled for this reference. Attempts to obtain a sufficient supply of seeds to merit documentation were unsuccessful. “Lanata” means woolly and refers to the hairs that densely cover the various parts. Winterfat leaves are high in protein and taste good after boiling, but the woolly hairs are very uncomfortable to swallow. The texture is about as appealing as chewing on a piece of carpet. Boiling fails to manage the hairs, but it produces a pale green broth that tastes good. This broth may seem ideal for soups and stews, but beware that harmful compounds can end up in the broth along with the nutrients. The primary forms of selenium found in plants are soluble in water, so this broth would be extremely dangerous if the leaves were gathered from plants growing in selenium-rich soils, and there’s no easy way to identify selenium-rich soils. All the woolly hairs can be removed by filtering the broth, but the selenium remains in the broth. Winterfat leaves are available in nearly unlimited quantities, but they’re small and tedious to gather. Although winterfat is important for supporting grazing animals during the cold months of winter and often gets depleted on rangelands, its importance to humans is questionable. Consumption is not recommended.

NOTES: My first encounter with winterfat was in the Snake Valley of western Utah. Subsequent encounters in other regions promptly confirmed the disappointment of the first. Due to the lack of references to edibility, the unappealing texture, the potential presence of harmful compounds, and the low caloric value, I certainly wouldn’t recommend eating this shrub-like plant.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Krascheninnikovia genus is currently found in the United States. It has no additional subspecies or varieties.

Description of winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata): FORM small, densely silver-haired, monoecious shrub about 1-8 dm tall; STEMS upright, not jointed, not spiny, not fleshy; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or short-stalked; blades linear to lanceolate; bases not clasping the stems; margins smooth and often rolled under; surfaces densely hairy (hairs simple or stellate-tomentose); FLOWERS inconspicuous; unisexual; MALE flowers with 0 bracts, 4 sepals, 0 petals, and 4 stamens; FEMALE flowers with 2 bracts, 0 sepals, 0 petals, and 2 stigmas; the bracts hairy, united, and partially enclosing the pistils; FRUITS utricles brown and hairy; SEEDS flat, oriented vertically, and not adherent to the utricle walls; HABITAT dry plains, sagebrush valleys, grassy hillsides, open juniper woodlands, and other places; blooming May to October.

REFERENCES: Winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata): Couplan on page 119 (cited as Eurotia lanata) states, “The plant is edible cooked.” No parts are specified for consumption as food. Couplan also warns that the plant accumulates selenium. Although winterfat has numerous medicinal uses, no other references cited in the bibliography indicate any food uses for winterfat.

Povertyweed

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Monolepis genus. The Monolepis genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae).

SPECIES: Povertyweed (Monolepis nuttalliana (Schult.) Greene).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots, leaves, and seeds of povertyweed are edible. Despite its low-class name, as a wild food, povertyweed ranks among the high-class, except for its peculiar odor. Judging plants based on names can be misleading. Povertyweed makes a fine salad plant, combining a spinach-like character with a healthy sprinkle of salt. When gathered in alkaline (salty) environments, such as the shores of dry lakes, the alkali content will inevitably be higher. Povertyweed generally lacks the harsh characteristics common among leaves in the goosefoot subfamily. However, its flavor can vary and tends to get worse as more leaves are eaten. Fresh or cooked leaves taste about the same. Fresh leaves are tender, succulent, nonfibrous, completely chewable, and covered with mealy powder. Cooked leaves become mushy like canned spinach. These qualities apply to all the herbaceous parts. The roots are dull white and too thin to bother peeling. They’re also tough, wiry, and fibrous, even after cooking. Harvesting them is barely worth the effort, but any source of calories is welcome in the barren landscape where povertyweed thrives. Soil conditions affect root quality. Traditionally, Native Americans tossed entire plants into cooking pots or dried them for storage. Harvesting the seeds couldn’t be much easier. They practically fall off the plants ready-to-eat. Since strong winds fail to disperse the seeds, the gathering season is fairly long. Sifting the seeds through a screen helps eliminate unwanted debris. Skimming the cleaning water can further eliminate unwanted debris. Boiling is the recommended method of cooking. Toasting is suggested only to impart flavor or to sterilize the seeds for long-term storage. Povertyweed seeds can be eaten raw, but they’re rather crunchy. Boiling softens the seeds and eliminates the salty flavor imparted by any remaining chaff. Actual seeds are not salty. They taste similar to quinoa. Plants of alkaline habitats often have salty, earthy, oceanic, or fishy accents. These peculiar accents are weak in povertyweed. About 15 minutes of boiling yields a delicious black mush with a few brown speckles. Wise foragers consider povertyweed a good friend. Look for it at low elevations early in the season along roads, washes, and the shorelines of dry lakes. It’s also common around agricultural areas. Roots and leaves are generally available from January to April, and the seeds from March to June. Povertyweed is an excellent resource that couldn’t be abundant enough.

NOTES: Most of the povertyweed samples for this reference came from Gila Bend in central Arizona. Gila Bend is a low-elevation agricultural area that favors a number of plants now considered weeds. Many of these plants are nonnative, but a few, including povertyweed, are native. Discovering that a plant is easy to gather and easy to process is always a pleasant surprise. Subsequently discovering that it tastes good is an added bonus. That was my first impression of povertyweed, and subsequent impressions were equally inspiring. Seeds of all my samples were consistently better than the leaves, so my recommendation would be to wait for the seeds. Since the plants blend in with the desert landscape when the seeds mature, locating suitable colonies “in bloom” and remembering the locations is a good idea. Like most members of the goosefoot subfamily, the flowers aren’t very impressive. Flowers of povertyweed consist merely of a few stamens and pistils hiding among the leaves. It’s the green leaves standing in contrast to the brown landscape that you’ll probably notice when searching for this wild food. It took me a while to find povertyweed. That’s why I said it couldn’t be abundant enough. I had more luck finding it in agricultural areas than natural areas, and colonies in natural areas were always thinner. Povertyweed should be a candidate for cultivation rather than an object of despise.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 3 species of the Monolepis genus are found in the United States, all of which are native to the West. The genus name means “one scale,” referring to the lone scale-like sepal in certain species. The overall branching pattern, leaf shape, and number of sepals are important to observe. Povertyweed (M. nuttalliana) is the species most likely to have just 1 sepal. The other two species often have 2-3 sepals, especially in the central flowers.

Description of povertyweed (Monolepis nuttalliana): FORM low-lying annual plant about 5-25 cm tall appearing early in the season; STEMS branched at the bases, and usually not significantly branched above the bases, also not dichotomously branched; LEAVES simple; alternate; about 10-40 mm long; stalked; blades linear to lance-rhombic; bases or mid blades often with triangular lobes; surfaces of young leaves often mealy (farinose); FLOWERS green, inconspicuous, perfect or pistillate, ovary superior, and arranged in clusters of about 5 or more in the leaf axils; sepals 1; petals 0; styles 2-branched; stamens 1; FRUITS utricles; fruit walls (pericarps) whitish, pitted, and readily separating from the seeds; SEEDS usually oriented vertically; HABITAT alkaline lowlands, disturbed areas, edges of dry lakes, and saltbrush communities; flowering nearly all year.

REFERENCES: Povertyweed (Monolepis nuttalliana): roots, leaves, and seeds Couplan (p. 120) and Moerman (p. 158); leaves Niethammer (1987 p. 125).

Samphires

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Arthrocnemum, Salicornia, and Sarcocornia genera. These genera were formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: #1 dwarf saltwort (Salicornia bigelovii Torr.). #2 Virginia glasswort (Salicornia depressa Standl. = Salicornia virginica L.). #3 seaside or slender glasswort (Salicornia maritima Wolff & Jefferies = Salicornia europaea auct. non L. = Salicornia prostrata auct. non Pall. = Salicornia ramosissima auct. non J. Woods = Salicornia herbacea auct. non (L.) L.). #4 Parish’s glasswort (Arthrocnemum subterminale (Parish) Standl. = Salicornia subterminalis Parish). #5 chickenclaws or perennial glasswort (Sarcocornia perennis (Mill.) A. J. Scott = Sarcocornia ambigua (Michx.) M. A. Alonso & M. B. Crespo).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Young stems and seeds of all species listed above, except for number 5, are edible. Number 5 has edible young stems, but its seeds are not reported to be edible. Note that young stems of all these species contain excessive amounts of unhealthy salts and should only be consumed in moderation. The following assessments are based on related species rather than those listed above. In the Southwest, most of the species listed above are restricted to the California coastline. Only a few are more widespread, mainly in saline habitats.

Red samphire (Salicornia rubra) presumably has edible leaves and seeds that can be used like those of the virtually identical seaside glasswort (S. maritima)—see the notes for reasons behind this presumption. Red samphire leaves occur in opposite pairs fused into cylindrical joints surrounding the true stems. Both parts look like stems, but the true stems are inside the leaves. As the plants age, the true stems harden, but the leaves remain succulent a while longer. Younger leaves make suitable vegetables, and they’re preferable to older leaves. Except for being way too salty, red samphire leaves are reasonably mild. They lack the foulness often associated with members of the goosefoot subfamily and taste superior to the leaves of a related species called picklebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis), except for a slightly acrid or bitter accent that may be present. Samphire seeds were once harvested from colonies found along the shores of salt lakes in Utah and Nevada. Autumn plants pass through various color phases, especially red, that signal the approaching harvest. Fully mature plants bearing a supply of seeds appear rusty brown and lifeless. Obtaining a supply of capsules is easy, but freeing the seeds from the capsules is not so easy because the capsules are tough. A sufficient quantity of pure seeds could not be obtained to merit documentation in this reference, but the seeds of red samphire are presumed to be similar to those of picklebush (Allenrolfea occidentalis).

Utah samphire (Sarcocornia utahensis) is not reported to be edible, but it is closely related to another perennial species called chickenclaws (S. perennis) that is edible. This mere relationship is not suitable evidence for verification of edibility. When eaten fresh, young stems of Utah samphire taste extremely salty and have a bitter, balsamic, marshy accent. Finely chopping the stems prior to boiling helps reduce the salt content and draws out any bitterness. A salt substitute can be made simply by chopping and drying the stems. This salt has an herb-like character and greenish-brown color. The aroma is like “flakes of fish food,” but the flavor is acceptable. Utah samphire stems can be marinated, seasoned, or preserved. However, they cannot be eaten in large quantities due to the high salt content. The seeds might be more valuable, but they are difficult to obtain and not reported to be edible.

NOTES: In 1911, Ralph Chamberlin reported (on page 380) that the Goshiute Indians of eastern Nevada and western Utah ate the seeds of “Salicornia herbacea” in large quantities. According to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System in 2014, Salicornia herbacea is a name that was commonly misapplied to Salicornia maritima. Since only one Salicornia species grows in the Goshiute’s homeland, they could only have gathered that one species, but that species is S. rubra, not S. herbacea (which is now S. maritima). Unfortunately, S. rubra is not reported to be edible, but the Goshiutes definitely gathered something and that something had to be S. rubra, which is commonly called red or western samphire. Anther length is the main feature used to distinguish S. maritima from S. rubra in Flora of North America Volume 4 and the difference in anther length is merely a tenth of a millimeter, 0.1 to 0.3 versus 0.2 to 0.4 mm respectively. Frankly, with “differences” like that I can see why names get misapplied. S. rubra has also been called S. europaea, which is edible, but doesn’t grow in North America. Plants of North America long known as S. europaea are generally referable to S. depressa, a species found primarily along the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines. S. rubra is an inland species. All these species look very similar, and that’s what causes confusion. The Goshiutes were certain about their ways, so I’ll confide in their wisdom and the knowledge they graciously passed on through Ralph Chamberlin and other authors over the years. The point of this passage is that S. rubra must be edible because it’s the only species the Goshiutes could have gathered, and the lack of references to its edibility is due to senseless name changes based on redundant descriptions.

IDENTIFICATION: Currently, four species of the Salicornia genus and three of the closely related Sarcocornia genus are recognized in the United States. Only Salicornia rubra and Sarcocornia utahensis occur in the Southwest, primarily in salt marshes of Utah and Nevada. Other species are limited to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts. Samphire leaves occur in opposite pairs fused into cylindrical joints around the stems. Both parts look like stems, but the true stems are inside the leaves. Nothing else in the goosefoot subfamily has fleshy jointed stems with oppositely arranged leaves.

Description of red samphire (Salicornia rubra): FORM upright, annual plant (herbaceous or woody toward the base) about 5-30 cm tall; STEMS jointed, fleshy, usually upright, and becoming red in autumn; flowering stems widest in upper sections; LEAVES simple; opposite; the pairs united for most of their length and forming cylinders around the stems; blades scale-like only at the tips; the tips triangular, obtuse to nearly acute and lacking short sharp projections; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in terminal spikes; sepals usually 3, united, and persistent; petals 0; styles 2; stamens 1-2; FRUITS utricles; fruit walls (pericarp) yellowish-brown and hairy; SEEDS ellipsoid and oriented vertically; HABITAT salt marshes; primarily northern Utah to southern Canada; blooming summer to autumn. NOTES: Red samphire is barely distinguishable from other North American species.

Description of Utah samphire (Sarcocornia utahensis): FORM low-growing, hairless, rhizomatous, perennial shrub about 10-30 cm tall; STEMS jointed and fleshy in youth; becoming brittle, woody, and bony in age; LEAVES simple; opposite; the pairs united for most of their length and forming cylinders around the stems; blades scale-like at the tips; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in terminal spikes; sepals 3-4, united, and usually persistent; petals 0; styles 2-3; stamens 1-2; FRUITS utricles: fruit walls (pericarp) light brown and smooth except for a row of hairs along the edge; SEEDS oriented vertically; HABITAT salt marshes; primarily the Great Salt Lake in Utah and northward, flowering in summer. NOTES: The single row of hairs on the pericarps set Utah Samphire apart from other North American species.

REFERENCES: #1 dwarf saltwort (Salicornia bigelovii): young stems and seeds Couplan (p. 120). #2 Virginia glasswort (Salicornia depressa = S. virginica): young stems and seeds Couplan (p. 120). #3 seaside glasswort (Salicornia maritima): young stems and seeds Couplan (p. 120, cited as Salicornia europaea). #4 Parish’s glasswort (Arthrocnemum subterminale = Salicornia subterminalis): young stems Couplan (p. 120); seeds Couplan (p. 120), Ebeling (p. 824), and Yanovski (p. 21). #5 chickenclaws or perennial glasswort (Sarcocornia perennis = Sarcocornia ambigua): young stems Hammer (p. 83) and Wright (2009 pp. 75-76). Also see the notes above.

Tumbleweed

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Salsola genus. This genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: Tumbleweed (Salsola tragus L. = Salsola australis R. Brown = Salsola kali L. ssp. tenuifolia Moq. = Salsola pestifer A. Nelson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Tumbleweed has spine-tipped leaves and bracts, so the various parts need to be gathered before the spines stiffen. Initially, the spines are soft, but they don’t remain that way for very long. Edible parts include the sprouts, stem tips, and seeds. Any of these parts may contain excessive amounts of nitrates or oxalates. The sprouts are easier, safer, and more practical to utilize as food than the other parts.

Tumbleweed stem tips may appear to be worthless, but they serve well as cooked vegetables. Only young, tender, vibrant green stem tips should be used. Older tips become dry, prickly, and unsuitable for consumption. When eaten fresh, young stem tips taste like romaine lettuce spiked with an overdose of salt. Boiling softens the tips, reduces the salt content, and forms a deep green broth that serves well as a base for soups. After boiling, the flavor is less plant-like, but otherwise not much different. At least 10 minutes of boiling, steaming, or sautéing is recommended. Tumbleweed stem tips make an excellent addition to pasta, potato, and egg salads. With great care, they can be eaten raw if cooking is not possible, but this endeavor is not advised because the leaves and bracts have spiny tips. Initially, the spines are soft, but they soon become stiff and dangerous. Cooking won’t adequately soften stiff spines. Only the top 2-3 cm of stems are tender. Further down, stems become tough, wiry, and spiny. Fresh stem tips are available throughout the summer. Scissors greatly assist the chore of gathering, but the tips can also be gathered by hand since they readily break off the plants. Tumbleweeds dominate the southwestern landscape.

NOTES: Tumbleweed is native to Europe and Asia and was accidentally introduced to North America with shipments of flax seed in the late 19th century. Since it promptly ran amok throughout most of the United States, including the Southwest, I was glad to learn that it’s edible. Carolyn Niethammer even wrote a book called The Tumbleweed Gourmet that has several recipes featuring the sprouts. So far, I’ve only tried the stem tips. Identifying sprouts is difficult because important parts necessary for identification (fruits and flowers) are unavailable. One way to overcome this problem is to “pre-identify” the plants. This is done by locating a colony of a desired plant one year and returning to the same spot the following year. Sprouts from other plants may also be present in the colony, but the desired sprouts should be distinctive enough. Another strategy is to gather the seeds and sow them in a suitable location. This guarantees positive identification, but keep in mind that possession, transportation, or propagation of noxious weeds is unlawful in many states. Any gathering of noxious weeds should be done in a way that doesn’t violate laws or further spread the weeds, especially in the vicinity of farmlands or rangelands. I normally hold the position that anything edible cannot be too abundant, but tumbleweed is too abundant. Even though tumbleweed is edible, it’s a low-grade wild food that doesn’t provide foragers with much sustenance.

IDENTIFICATION: The Salsola genus is currently represented by 6 species in the United States, all of which are nonnative weeds. The spiny leaves and bracts are distinctive. Very few members of the goosefoot subfamily have spiny leaves and bracts.

Description of tumbleweed (Salsola tragus): FORM annual plant about 8-15 dm tall with a rounded form; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear; margins smooth; tips spiny; FLOWERS regular, perfect, and arranged individually or a few clustered in the axils; subtended by 3 spiny bracts; sepals 5, persistent, and developing into membranous wings on the fruits; styles 2-3; stigmas 2; stamens 5; FRUITS utricles spheric to ovoid and prominently winged; seeds horizontal (compressed from top to bottom); HABITAT throughout the United States and Canada, especially in disturbed areas and barren alkaline soils; blooming in summer. NOTES: Barbwire tumbleweed (S. paulsenii) primarily of California is virtually identical except for having slightly larger wings and a fruit diameter of 7-12 mm across versus 4-9 mm across.

REFERENCES: Tumbleweed (Salsola tragus = Salsola australis = Salsola pestifer = Salsola kali ssp. tenuifolia): shoots Vizgirdas (p. 95) and Niethammer (1987 pp. 121-124); young stem tips Vizgirdas (p. 95); seeds Harrington (pp. 93-95) and Moerman (p. 237).

Seepweeds and Seablites

FAMILY: Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) – Suaeda genus. This genus was formerly placed in the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), which is now a subfamily of the amaranth family.

SPECIES: #1 American, western, or horned seablite (Suaeda calceoliformis (Hook.) Moq. = Suaeda americana (Pers.) Fernald = Suaeda depressa auct. non (Pursh) S. Watson = Suaeda depressa (Pursh) S. Watson var. erecta S. Watson = Suaeda occidentalis (S. Watson) S. Watson). #2 black, bushy, or desert seepweed (Suaeda nigra J. F. Macbr. = Suaeda duripes I. M. Johnst. = Suaeda fruticosa auct. non Forssk. = Suaeda intermedia S. Watson = Suaeda moquinii (Torr.) Greene = Suaeda nigrescens I. M. Johnst. = Suaeda ramosissima (Standl.) I. M. Johnst. = Suaeda suffrutescens S. Watson = Suaeda torreyana S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The seeds and leaves of both species listed above (yes that mess of names is only two species) were important resources to Native Americans living in the Southwest and Great Basin.

Horned seablite (S. calceoliformis) is a common plant of alkaline soils in the western United States. “Blite” is an old Latin word for spinach and has nothing to do with “blight,” which refers to any number of various plant diseases. Horned seablite grows in colonies and often turns red shortly prior to harvest time, which is usually in autumn. Fully mature plants become dull brown or black. Seeds are best harvested when the stems still have some flexibility. Once the stems become brittle, they break into chaff that proves difficult to remove. Pure seeds are delicious, grain-like, and completely free of acrid, bitter, musty, salty, and other accents. The texture is easily chewable. No bran-like qualities are imparted by the seed coats. Overall, horned seablite provides an excellent source of seeds.

Black seepweed (S. nigra) is a common shrub of dry lakeshores, salt marshes, and other alkaline soils in the western United States. Its aroma fails to suggest that any parts would be edible. However, the leaves and seeds are valuable resources:

Leaves of black seepweed have a consistently offensive aroma and a wide range of flavors. At best, the leaves taste mild, salty, and peculiar. At worst, they taste foul, fishy, soapy, and “somewhat like shoe polish combined with an all-purpose cleaner.” Even the worst leaves still qualify as palatable, but the overtones certainly don’t suggest food. Salt is always a major feature of the flavor. Young and old leaves taste about the same. Leaf texture is succulent and easily chewable. Cooking improves the flavor by reducing the strange overtones. Black seepweed is rarely without a powerful aroma immediately noticeable when approaching a colony. Upper leaves are shorter than lower leaves. Stems tend to break when collecting the leaves. Boiling won’t soften the fibrous stems, so excluding them when gathering this resource is recommended. Overall, black seepweed leaves are a good vegetable despite the unusual overtones.

Seeds of black seepweed are shiny, black, coiled like shells, and produced in great abundance. They make a fine resource in autumn. Shortly prior to harvest time, the leaves turn various shades of red, orange, yellow, and black. Coloration is a good sign indicating that the seeds will soon be ready. Shriveling is also a good sign. Plants are usually moist when the seeds begin to mature. Slightly later in the season, plants dry out completely. Moisture impedes the process of winnowing (separating seeds and chaff with wind) because seeds tend to stick to moist parts. Drying effectively solves this problem. The easiest way to obtain pure seeds is by stripping the various parts (sepals, leaves, and seeds) off the stems, allowing these parts to dry, and then winnowing. Harvesting completely dry plants isn’t necessarily a better strategy because brittle pieces of stems break into the collection and prove difficult to remove. Drying moist parts is easier than removing stem fragments. Seepweed seeds taste delicious, starchy, and similar to quinoa. Assuming all the chaff is removed, the flavor is free of acrid, bitter, foul, and salty overtones. The seeds are soft enough to eat right off the shrubs. Raw seeds have a crunchy, bran-like texture. Any cooking method produces good results. Toasting followed by grinding produces high-quality flour. Boiling produces hearty porridge. Chaff tends to float in water while seeds tend to sink. Any chaff eluding the winnowing step can be poured off the cooking water. Black seepweed is an autumn resource. Seeds mature over a period of several weeks. Most seeds either drop or deteriorate by winter. Overall, black seepweed seeds are an excellent resource, easily ranking among the best foods of salt marshes.

NOTES: Black seepweed is an underrated wild food. It’s often mentioned in books about edible plants, but it’s rarely emphasized. Native Americans undoubtedly appreciated anything that was common, easy to harvest, easy to process, and reasonably palatable. Black seepweed has all these qualities, yet it’s rarely portrayed as a staple. Anyone new to foraging in the western United States would be wise to investigate this shrub. Even though it’s called seepweed, it doesn’t require a seep or any other constant source of water. It does fine on the shores of dry lakes, as well as the edges of roads and washes. My earliest memory of it was on the Lordsburg Playa in southwestern New Mexico. Playas are flat, desert basins that may periodically be inundated with water. They tend to be alkaline environments because they collect rainwater carrying dissolved mineral salts (alkali). To the north, they’re called sinks, flats, basins, or dry lakes. From a forager’s perspective, they’re very useful places that can furnish impressive amounts of food at certain times of the year. Although food may be plentiful in these places, drinkable water tends to be scarce. I never tried the water of Lordsburg Playa, but I did try the black seepweed along with a few other things. Most of the black seepweed seeds I gathered for this reference were from the Sevier Desert in western Utah long after my initiation with the shrub at Lordsburg Playa. The desolate Snake Valley, Tule Valley, and Sevier Lake (dry), have unimaginable amounts of edible seeds, far more than a hungry forager could eat in a year. There’s not much of a selection, but the few species adapted to the region are very productive. Horned seablite was less impressive than black seepweed due to difficulties in processing, but both species deserve more recognition.

IDENTIFICATION: The Suaeda genus is represented by 10-15 species in the United States, of which only 2 occur in the Southwest. The classification is chaotic due to a multitude of redundant scientific names. Seepweeds are well adapted to salty habitats.

Description of horned seablite (Suaeda calceoliformis): FORM annual plant about 1-7 dm tall; often with an upright, broom-like form; hairless and powdery; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear and fleshy; rounded in cross section; margins entire; tips acute but not spiny; FLOWERS sub-regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like clusters of 3-7 forming spikes; bracts leaf-like and not spiny; sepals 5, united, horned at the tips, winged at the bases, keeled on the sides, and with one sepal larger than the others; petals 0; stamens 5; FRUITS utricles enclosed by persistent calyces; SEEDS of 2 types: (a) lens-shaped, black, and shiny; or (b) flat, brown, and dull; in both types the orientation horizontal and the embryos coiled; HABITAT alkaline lowlands throughout the West; blooming summer to autumn. NOTES: Western seepweed (S. occidentalis), which is sometimes recognized as a species, is virtually identical, except for having a low-spreading form and flower clusters with 1-3 flowers.

Description of black seepweed (Suaeda nigra): FORM small shrub about 2-14 dm tall; with or without hairs; often powdery; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear and fleshy; rounded or flat in cross section; margins entire; tips acute but not spiny; FLOWERS mostly perfect (or some unisexual), ovary superior, and arranged in head-like clusters of 1-12 forming branching spikes; bracts leaf-like and spineless; sepals 5, united, of equal length, not horned, and not winged; petals 0; stamens 5; FRUITS utricles enclosed by persistent calyces; SEEDS lens-shaped or flat; brown or black; oriented vertically or horizontally; embryos spirally coiled; HABITAT alkaline lowlands throughout the West; blooming summer to autumn.

REFERENCES: Kirk (p. 62) indicates that all species of the Suaeda genus have edible leaves and seeds. #1 horned seablite (Suaeda calceoliformis): leaves Couplan (pp. 122-123); seeds Chamberlin (p. 383, cited as Suaeda depressa). #2 black seepweed (Suaeda nigra = S. moquinii): leaves and seeds Moerman (p. 253) and Rhode (pp. 81-82).