Asteraceae

Sunflower Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: The sunflower family (Asteraceae or Compositae) is the largest family of plants on Earth. It offers foragers an extraordinary number of useful plants, some of which are easy to recognize and others that are more challenging to recognize. One of the most distinctive features of the family is the flower heads. Each head is a collection of flowers rather than a single flower. Flower heads consist of disk flowers or ray flowers or both. Disk flowers are typically regular, 5-lobed, and positioned in the centers. Ray flowers are typically adorned with banner-like extensions called ligules and positioned around the outer edges. Both types are ovary inferior. Heads consisting entirely of disk flowers are said to be discoid. Heads consisting entirely of ray flowers are said to be ligulate. Heads consisting of both types are said to be radiate. Bracts and flowers are connected to parts called receptacles. Bracts surrounding the flower heads are called phyllaries, and collectively these bracts are called involucres. Members of the sunflower family produce dry fruits called cypselae, which have often been called achenes. A cypsela is basically a seed surrounded by a shell with some chaff attached. An achene is the same thing, except that it develops from a superior ovary rather than an inferior ovary. Each cypsela typically consists of a body, beak, and pappus. Bodies are always present, but beaks and pappi may be absent. The parts mentioned above represent an introduction to the basic structural components of sunflowers. The following articles introduce additional concepts necessary for a better understanding of this extraordinary family.

Sesquiterpene lactones: The sunflower family is characterized by highly biologically active compounds called sesquiterpene lactones. Over 3,000 of these compounds have been described. Since they are generally resistant to heat and insoluble in water, very little can be done to eliminate them, so the only solution is to avoid them. Sesquiterpene lactones are responsible for thousands of livestock fatalities annually, but human fatalities are extremely rare. These compounds tend to taste bitter and irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and digestive system. Many of them trigger allergies or dermatitis, and many of them have antibacterial, antifungal, or cytotoxic properties. From a plant’s perspective, they serve many purposes, especially defensive purposes. Specific sesquiterpene lactones of concern are discussed in the following articles.

Agoseris

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Agoseris genus.

SPECIES: #1 orange agoseris or false dandelion (Agoseris aurantiaca (Hook.) Greene). #2 pale agoseris, mountain dandelion, or goat chicory (Agoseris glauca (Pursh) Raf.). #3 spearleaf agoseris (Agoseris retrorsa (Benth.) Greene).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots, leaves, and flowers of spearleaf agoseris are edible. Leaves of orange agoseris can be eaten fresh or cooked, and the milky latex of mountain dandelion can be collected, dried, and chewed like gum. It’s highly likely that all species in the Agoseris genus have edible roots, leaves, and flowers. However, there’s no formal documentation to confirm this presumption. Leaves sampled for this reference had no significant differences in flavor, texture, and aroma. Agoseris leaves taste similar to dandelion leaves, which taste similar to lettuce with a bitter overtone. The texture is easily chewable, except for the midveins, which may be a little tough. Hairs (when present) are not a problem. Agoseris leaves make an excellent addition to salads, but gathering enough may take a while. Simmering the leaves yields an emerald green broth. These plants are common in mountain meadows throughout the West for most of the growing season. Based on flavor, agoseris leaves rank among the better-quality green leafy vegetables.

NOTES: Surprisingly little has been written about the various Agoseris species, which is unusual because they’re common and palatable. Most of the samples for this reference came from Bald Mountain, Salina Creek, or the Markagunt Plateau in Utah. A few samples came from the Coconino National Forest in Arizona, Toquima Mountains in Nevada, or Neff Mountain in Colorado. I had both varieties of orange agoseris (aurantiaca and purpurea) and two of the six varieties of mountain dandelion (glauca and laciniata). Spearleaf agoseris, primarily of California and Oregon, eluded my searches. Usage reports for the various parts come from the Ute, Navajo, Kawaiisu, and Goshiute Indians, as well as several tribes in the Pacific Northwest. Agoseris species apparently played a minor role in the lives of these peoples. Few other plants look so similar to dandelions, a fact often reflected in the common names. Dandelions (of the Taraxacum genus) are nutritious and safe to eat in quantity, but this doesn’t necessarily apply to related plants just because a name is similar. Agoseris species could have a similar safety and nutritional profile, but scientists have not yet determined this information. Based on the species I sampled, all I can say is that the taste, texture, and aroma of those species closely approximates those aspects of dandelions.

IDENTIFICATION: The Agoseris genus is currently represented by about 10 species in the United States, all of which are native to the West. Only about 5 are found in the Southwest. Dandelions (of the Taraxacum genus) differ by having cypselae with sharp bumps on the upper bodies. Cypselae of Agoseris species lack these bumps, but are otherwise similar. Other similar-looking plants generally lack beaks.

Description of orange agoseris (Agoseris aurantiaca): FORM dandelion-like plant about 8-60 cm tall; hairy or hairless; with milky sap; and without stems; LEAVES simple; basal; blades narrowly oblanceolate; tips rounded or pointed; margins smooth or with a few spreading teeth or lobes; FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged individually at the ends of long stalks; phyllaries weakly to strongly overlapping in several series, with or without purple spots; receptacles flat, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers normally orange; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae linear to fusiform; ribbed; rounded or angled in cross section; beaks short, slender, not ridged, and from half to 2 times longer than the bodies; pappi consisting of numerous, slender, white, simple bristles; HABITAT mountain meadows nearly throughout western North America, blooming in summer. NOTES: The orange flowers of this species are distinctive. Most species have yellow flowers. Two varieties are recognized by the extent of purple mottling on the phyllaries.

Description of pale agoseris (Agoseris glauca): FORM small, perennial, dandelion-like plant about 7-40 cm tall; hairy or hairless; with milky sap; without stems; and often dusty (glaucous); LEAVES simple; basal; blades linear to oblanceolate; margins smooth, toothed, or deeply cut; FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged individually at the ends of long stalks; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles flat, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae linear to fusiform; ribbed; rounded or angled in cross section; beaks short, evidently ridged, and less than or equal to length of bodies; pappi consisting of numerous, slender, white, simple bristles; HABITAT mountain meadows nearly throughout western North America, blooming in spring. NOTES: Several varieties are recognized, differing by size, leaf shape, hair features, phyllaries, cypselae, and distribution.

Description of spearleaf agoseris (Agoseris retrorsa): FORM small, perennial, dandelion-like plant about 7-50 cm tall; with milky sap; and without stems; LEAVES simple; basal; blades oblanceolate; margins often with narrow backward-pointing lobes (retrorse); FLOWERS ligulate; heads solitary or a few terminating long stalks; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles flat, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae linear to fusiform; ribbed; rounded or angled in cross section; bodies cut off at the tops instead of tapering into the beaks; beaks long, 2-4 times longer than the bodies; pappi consisting of numerous, slender, white, simple bristles; HABITAT mountain meadows; pine and sagebrush communities; primarily California, also scattered in the Great Basin; blooming May to June.

REFERENCES: #1 orange agoseris (Agoseris aurantiaca): leaves Chamberlin (p. 383, cited as Troximon aurantiacum). #2 pale agoseris (Agoseris glauca): dried sap (chewed as gum) Moerman (p. 36); milky latex and dried leaves (chewed as gum) Kuhnlein (p. 128). #3 spearleaf agoseris (Agoseris retrorsa): whole plant Moerman (p. 36).

Pussytoes

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Antennaria genus.

SPECIES: #1 littleleaf pussytoes (Antennaria parvifolia Nutt. = Antennaria aprica Greene). #2 rosy pussytoes (Antennaria rosea Greene).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Leaves of littleleaf pussytoes (A. parvifolia) are edible, and those of rosy pussytoes (A. rosea) can be chewed like gum. 

NOTES: Ambiguous descriptions in identification manuals impeded my progress on the Antennaria genus. Leaves of the species I sampled tasted fine, but their densely hairy texture was rather unpleasant.

IDENTIFICATION: The Antennaria genus is represented by about 35 species in the United States, most of which are native to the West. Only about 10 species are found in the Southwest.

Description of pussytoes (the Antennaria genus): FORM low-lying, woolly, perennial plants about 3-27 cm tall; often spreading by rhizomes or stolons; LEAVES simple; basal and alternate; with or without stalks; blades spoon-, egg-, lance-, line- or wedge-shaped; margins usually entire; FLOWERS discoid; heads solitary or arranged in clusters; male and female flowers on separate plants; phyllaries thin, dry, papery, and/or translucent; often colorful (white, pink, red, yellow, green, brown, or black) toward the tips; arranged in 3-6 or more series; receptacles flat, convex, or egg-shaped; pitted and nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers 20-100 or more; staminate or pistillate; corollas of both genders white, yellow, or red; FRUITS cypselae ellipsoid or ovoid; bodies smooth or papillate; pappi consisting of 10-20 or more hair-like bristles; HABITAT mountain meadows throughout western North America and elsewhere; blooming late spring to early autumn.

REFERENCES: #1 littleleaf pussytoes (Antennaria parvifolia): leaves Moerman (p. 48). #2 rosy pussypaws (Antennaria rosea): leaves (chewed as gum) Moerman (p. 48) and Kuhnlein (p. 128).

Slimleaf Bursage

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Ambrosia genus.

SPECIES: Slimleaf bursage or weakleaf bur ragweed (Ambrosia confertiflora DC. = Franseria confertiflora (DC.) Rydb. = Franseria tenuifolia Harv. & A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Although the roots are reported to be edible, they may be unsafe. Slimleaf bursage contains compounds (confertiflorin, reynosin, and parthenolide) that are capable of causing contact dermatitis, mouth ulcers, and loss of taste. Slimleaf bursage roots were supposedly a “staple crop” of Native Americans living in southern Arizona. Very few references mention this wild food, which is unusual because most staple foods are well known and well documented. Safety information concerning this plant is also scarce, so caution is advised.

Roots of slimleaf bursage are basically tough cores surrounded by thin, chewable, outer layers. Boiling doesn’t significantly soften the cores, but reasonable amounts of nourishment can be obtained by chewing the outer layers. Don’t bother trying to peel the brown skins because nothing would be left to eat. The fresh or boiled flavor is about the same. It’s a decent flavor combining a starchy character with a resinous overtone. It’s definitely reminiscent of food. Exactly which food is hard to determine. A combination of potatoes and sunflower seeds along with a character unique to bursages and a cardboard-like accent best describes the experience. The yellowish-green cooking water has the same flavor. Slimleaf bursage roots are good for building vegetable broths. Assuming the roots are safe to eat, there’s no doubt they would’ve been important in the past. Slimleaf bursage roots are almost unknown today, which is unusual for something that tastes good. The question is why were they forgotten? Was it a safety concern? Was it the texture? Was it some other issue? This is a book of answers, but regrettably these questions remain a mystery. Slimleaf bursage grows in vast colonies, so the roots are available in nearly unlimited quantities. Although these plants are native, they’re considered weeds.

NOTES: One of the earlier references to the edibility of slimleaf bursage comes from Edward Castetter. In his legendary work (1935-b page 17) on Native Americans living in the Southwest he wrote, “The staple root crops are the sand-root (Ammobroma sonorae) and the root of Franseria tenuifolia, both of which appear on the flood plains near the villages after the rains. Whole families go out with digging sticks usually in October to gather the roots of these species, and live upon them while they last.” He was referring to the Papago Indians, now called the Tohono O’odham Indians, primarily of central and southern Arizona. Franseria tenuifolia is Ambrosia confertiflora. The names are synonymous. Daniel Austin (p. 54) suggests that this plant may have been confused with broomrapes (of the Orobanche genus) that often grow on bursages. Broomrapes would make a lot more sense than slimleaf bursage as a staple food.

IDENTIFICATION: The United States is home to about 25 species of the Ambrosia genus, of which about 10 occur in the Southwest and Great Basin. The lack of ray flowers and bur-like cypselae are signatures of ragweeds.

Description of slimleaf bursage (Ambrosia confertiflora): FORM upright, perennial plant (never a woody shrub) about 3-7 dm tall emerging from a creeping root system; LEAVES simple; alternate; stalked; blades deeply 2-3 pinnately dissected to the midribs; surfaces hairy; FLOWERS discoid, green, inconspicuous, unisexual, and arranged in multiple spike-like racemes; male and female flowers in different heads; MALE flower heads nodding; FEMALE flower heads bur-like; receptacles bearing scaly chaff; FRUITS cypselae ovoid to fusiform; enclosed within spiny burs; each about 2-4 mm long and armed with about 10-20 spines with curved tips; pappi absent; HABITAT washes and floodplains at low to mid elevations; Texas to California; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: Slimleaf bursage (Ambrosia confertiflora): roots and leaves Castetter (1935-b p. 17, cited as Franseria tenuifolia) and Hodgson (p. 86).

Common Burdock

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Arctium genus.

SPECIES: Common or lesser burdock (Arctium minus Bernh.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Common burdock has edible roots, stems, and leaves. Of all these parts, the roots qualify as most valuable. Other parts are considerably less appealing. The leaf blades taste bitter and may irritate sensitive tissues. The stems and leafstalks taste better than the leaf blades. Common burdock and a closely related species called greater burdock (A. lappa) are native to Europe and Asia. Greater burdock can be used in the same ways as common burdock and is cultivated as a root vegetable in Japan (Splittstoesser pp. 293-294). The Japanese call it “gobo” and consider it a delicacy. Common burdock is less suitable for cultivation, but it’s an excellent plant for foragers.

Common burdock roots are a fine resource. The plant is biennial, meaning it lives for 2 years. First-year roots are preferable to second-year roots. Gathering the roots should be done when the plants are still rosettes, prior to when stems appear. Spotting the rosettes is easy, even with a thick layer of snow on the ground. Common burdock has a unique look that should be remembered in winter survival situations. Massive egg-shaped leaves poking through the snow may indicate this plant. Few other plants have such big leaves. Spring and autumn are the ideal seasons to search for common burdock. Summer is less favorable because roots of younger plants are still developing and roots of older plants are being depleted. Freshly dug roots of first-year plants are dull white with dark-brown skins. The roots can be eaten raw, but the texture is rather tough. Boiling them for 1-2 hours softens the texture to the firmness of cooked carrots. Common burdock roots are essential for soups, stews, stir-fries, and many other entrées. They taste mild, starchy, and earthy. Leaving the skins on imparts a resinous overtone, so peeling the skins may be desirable. Unlike resins of many plants in the sunflower family, those of common burdock are mild. Overall, common burdock roots rank among the top 10 best wild foods.

Common burdock leaves are huge. The blades easily measure 3 dm wide by 5 dm long, and the stalks add several more decimeters. Common burdock stalks are similar to celery in size, texture, and general appearance. Note that flavor is not included among those similarities. When eaten fresh, common burdock stalks taste mild, bitter, salty, and more like artichokes than celery. Strings reinforce the texture, and surfaces are covered with cobweb-like hairs. Overall, the stalks are an excellent wild food, fresh or cooked. Leaf blades are considerably less appealing than the stalks and unsuitable to use as vegetables. Simmering the blades offers a minor improvement in flavor by drawing out some of the bitterness and saltiness. The resulting broth is rather unappealing. Common burdock leaves are best utilized like celery stalks.

Common burdock stems can be utilized as vegetables when young and tender. Old stems become tough and difficult to cut without a power saw! Common burdock stems have solid centers of greenish-white pith hiding under several layers of stringy fibers. Pith is relatively soft. It can be utilized as food long after the outer layers become tough. Common burdock pith is a pleasant wild food, but it’s difficult to obtain. It has a bland flavor and a grainy texture, somewhat like “wet sawdust with an herb flavor.” Splitting the stems and scooping out the pith is easier said than done. The stems tend to split randomly rather than in half, and the pith usually adheres to the outer layers. Age is always a factor with common burdock stems. Younger stems are more manageable than older stems.

NOTES: A 100 gram serving of raw greater burdock (Arctium lappa) roots contains: 72 kilocalories, 80.09 g water, 1.53 g protein, 0.15 g fat, 17.34 g carbohydrates, 0.89 g ash, 41 mg calcium, 51 mg phosphorus, 38 mg magnesium, 0.80 mg iron, 0.33 mg zinc, 0.077 mg copper, 0.232 mg manganese, 0.7 µg selenium, 5 mg sodium, 308 mg potassium, B vitamins, and many other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: In the United States, the Arctium genus is currently represented by 4 species, all of which are native to other countries. Only common burdock (A. minus) is likely to be found in the Southwest.

Description of common burdock (Arctium minus): FORM robust, biennial plant about 5-15 dm tall from a taproot; LEAVES simple; basal and alternate; stalks of lower leaves long and hollow toward the bases; blades lance-ovate to heart-shaped, up to 3 dm wide by 5 dm long; margins smooth or toothed; lower surfaces finely hairy (tomentose); FLOWERS discoid; heads bur-like, 10-25 mm across, and arranged in several ascending raceme-like clusters (racemiform); peduncles short; bracts leaf-like; phyllaries overlapping in numerous series and tipped with hooked spines; receptacles flat and bristly; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers pinkish-purple, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae oblong-obovoid, ribbed, angled, and hairless; pappi consisting of numerous bristles; HABITAT fields and disturbed locations; often along mountain streams; blooming primarily in summer. NOTES: Greater burdock (A. lappa) differs by having larger flower heads (20-40 mm across) on longer stalks arranged in more flat-topped clusters (corymbiform).

REFERENCES: Common burdock (Arctium minus) and greater burdock (Arctium lappa): roots Brill (pp. 32-36) and Couplan (pp. 412-413); young leaf blades Brill (pp. 32-36) and Couplan (pp. 412-413); leaf stalks Couplan (pp. 412-413); inner stems Couplan (pp. 412-413); flower stalks Brill (pp. 32-36).

Sagebrushes

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Artemisia genus.

SPECIES: #1 biennial wormwood (Artemisia biennis Willd.). #2 field or common sagewort (Artemisia campestris L.). #3 Carruth’s sagewort (Artemisia carruthii Alph. Wood ex Carruth. = Artemisia kansana Britton = Artemisia wrightii A. Gray). #4 wild tarragon, green sagewort, or silky wormwood (Artemisia dracunculus L.). #5 fringed or prairie sagewort (Artemisia frigida Willd.). #6 western mugwort (Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.). #7 Michaux’s, lemon, or mountain sagewort (Artemisia michauxiana Besser). #8 big or basin sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Seeds of all species listed above are edible in moderation, and leaves of wild tarragon (A. dracunculus), fringed sagebrush (A. frigida), and western mugwort (A. ludoviciana) can be used as seasonings. Other parts are inedible. Even the leaves are inedible, except as seasonings, due to compounds called sesquiterpene lactones and a harmful oil called thujone. The leaves also have antimicrobial compounds that act like preservatives to keep meat and other food items fresh. Species matter in this genus because some are much safer than others. Most Artemisia species bloom from July to October and produce seeds until the weather becomes too cold. The genus name refers to a Greek goddess called Artemis.

Biennial wormwood (A. biennis) is native to the northwestern United States and considered a weed elsewhere. In 1911, in reference to the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada, Ralph Chamberlin wrote, “The seeds of this plant were formerly gathered and used as food extensively.” He also indicated that the Goshiute name for the plant was “piawada.” This quote implies a measure of safety because harmful plants would not be used as food, at least not extensively. On the other hand, very few references indicate that these seeds are edible, and that raises a safety concern, especially in a genus with so many dangerous plants. Like most species, the seeds are a late-season resource.

Field sagewort (A. campestris) is a highly successful species native to North America. It’s a complex species with numerous forms that make identification difficult. Apparently, the Kayenta Navajo of northeastern Arizona prepared the seeds of field sagewort, specifically the pacifica subspecies, as mush. No other reports of this plant being used as food by Native Americans were located, and that raises a safety concern. Why were the seeds of such a common plant not used more often? Considering the dangerous nature of the Artemisia genus, the answer is probably that this species is harmful. Several medicinal uses have been reported, but food uses are rare. Like most species, the seeds are an autumn resource. Field sagewort should be considered medicine rather than food.

Carruth’s sagewort (A. carruthii) is a common species native to the southwestern United States. It looks very similar to wild tarragon, but it’s no substitute for wild tarragon. Leaves of Carruth’s sagewort taste bland. No harsh overtones are present, but the flavor is definitely inferior to wild tarragon. Seeds of Carruth’s sagewort were an important resource to the Zuni Indians of western New Mexico. The Zuni name for this plant is “kia’tsanna,” which means “small seeds.” In 1908, in reference to the use of these seeds among the Zuni, Matilda Stevenson wrote, “The seeds ground and mixed with water are made into balls or pats, and steamed. This dish is now rarely prepared, but the Zuñi declare that kia’tsanna was among their most ancient foods, and that they depended much on it when they first emerged into the outer world.” Obtaining a sufficient quantity of Carruth’s sagewort seeds for documentation in this reference was not possible, but they’re expected to be similar to those of wild tarragon, which are excellent. Seeds of these species mature in autumn.

Wild tarragon (A. dracunculus) is common throughout the northern hemisphere. It’s native to Europe, Asia, and western North America. The leaves make a superb seasoning, and the seeds rank among the best in the genus. Tarragon sold in grocery stores is the same species, though a number of cultivated varieties are considered superior. Harvesting wild tarragon requires very little effort. These shrub-like plants are densely leafy. Dried leaves retain the tarragon aspects and lack the paint-like overtones common to the genus. Seeds of wild tarragon are far more valuable than the leaves. Actual seeds are contained within tiny, brown, dry, shell-like fruit structures called cypselae. Tiny is an understatement. Freshly harvested cypselae are practically flour in their natural state. Winnowing the chaff to obtain the cypselae is easy, but isolating the actual seeds is nearly impossible. Fortunately, isolating the actual seeds is unnecessary. The cypselae can be used whole. Toasting the ground cypselae produces an extraordinary flour of high food value. Shells of the cypselae are unnoticeable in the flour, and they don’t impart any coarse, chaffy, gummy, bran-like, or sawdust-like textures. They’re too small, thin, and weak to cause problems. Toasted tarragon flour is delicious, oily, nutty, and faintly resinous. The flavor is distinctive and free of harsh overtones. It’s reminiscent of nut bread with an accent suggesting an ancient seed of unknown origin, perhaps a relative of ragweed. Coarsely ground cypselae can be added to soup or made into porridge. The seed meal is slightly more buoyant than the shells. Both parts generally remain suspended in water. In 1911, in reference to the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada, Ralph Chamberlin wrote, “Seeds of this plant are oily and nutritious. Formerly much gathered as food. Said to have formed a favorite dish.” This quote accurately reflects my own experiences. The Goshiute name for wild tarragon is “pahwats.” Leaves of wild tarragon are best gathered from late spring to early autumn. Seeds mature sometime in autumn. Overall, wild tarragon is an extraordinary resource.

Fringed sagebrush (A. frigida) is a native species common throughout much of North America. The leaves make a fairly good seasoning, and the seeds can be added to porridge. The leaves taste more sage-like than paint-like. A few leaves go a long way. Lower leaf surfaces are densely covered with soft hairs that tend to resist chewing. Finely chopping the leaves solves this issue. Gathering and processing the leaves is easy. Removing any stem fragments prior to drying the leaves is recommended, because stem fragments are difficult to remove later. This seasoning is no substitute for true sage (of the Salvia genus), but it’s a reasonably good seasoning. During colonial times, leaves of fringed sagebrush were sold as “mountain sage” in the Rocky Mountain region and tea made from these leaves was considered a cure-all (Soth p. 133). Apparently, Native Americans of the plateaus in southwestern Utah ate the seeds of this species, but very few references indicate that the seeds are edible, which raises a safety concern. I only sampled the leaves of this species, not the seeds. Foragers seeking this potential wild food will most likely find it in prairies and mountain meadows. Leaves of fringed sagebrush can be gathered almost anytime, but the seeds are a late-season resource.

Western mugwort (A. ludoviciana) is a dominant species of the central and western United States. To be more precise, it’s a conglomerate of numerous subspecies, and exactly which subspecies were utilized as food by Native Americans is rarely indicated. Plants for this assessment were only identified to the species level, not the subspecies level. Differences between subspecies are based primarily on leaf shape and are unlikely to affect foragers. Fresh or dried leaves can be used as seasonings, and the seeds can be made into porridge. Western mugwort seasoning is prepared by rinsing, chopping, and drying freshly harvested leaves. Drying doesn’t adversely affect the flavor. It’s already adverse! The seasoning has a bitter flavor with an overtone like true sage combined with latex paint. The texture is brittle, yet cottony. Pure leaves make the best seasoning. Dried leaves retain potency even after years in storage. This seasoning should probably be used sparingly. Young shoots and seeds of western mugwort are reported to be edible, fresh or cooked. Apache, Blackfoot, and Paiute Indians ate the seeds. The few seeds of this species that I sampled were very bitter. The sample was too small for a proper evaluation, and no further samples were obtained. These seeds were from plants growing in the rocky terrain of central Arizona. Safety data for western mugwort is scarce, so consuming the seeds in meal-size amounts or on a regular basis is inadvisable. Leaves of western mugwort can be gathered almost anytime, but the seeds are primarily a late-season resource.

Michaux’s sagewort (A. michauxiana) is a native, high-elevation, lemon-scented species that barely reaches the northern boundary of the Southwest. Apparently, the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada called this plant “kutsipawatsip” and gathered the seeds to use as food (Chamberlin p. 362, cited as A. discolor). According to the Flora of North America Editorial Committee, A. discolor and A. michauxiana are synonymous. Michaux’s sagewort is also called lemon sagewort in reference to its lemon-scented leaves. Whether or not these leaves can be used as seasonings is uncertain. I never located this species, but it has been collected in the La Sal, Tushar, and Deep Creek mountains of Utah and the Snake, Grant, and Toquima ranges of Nevada. Michaux’s sagewort blooms in summer and produces seeds until temperatures become too cold.

Big sagebrush (A. tridentata) is a native shrub that grows just about everywhere. It’s the state emblem of Nevada and probably the most common shrub of the western United States. Native Americans had many uses for big sagebrush, but its use as food isn’t so clearly defined. The leaves were used medicinally, and the seeds were eaten. Some reports indicate that the seeds were unpalatable and mainly used to extend dwindling food supplies. Other reports indicate that the seeds were gathered in large quantities as a staple food item. Big sagebrush leaves taste like true sage combined with latex paint. They don’t serve well for any culinary purpose. Tea made from these leaves indeed tastes like medicine. For the most part, I missed the seeds due to early frosts, so I can’t comment on their flavor. However, I was able to obtain a small supply for some gathering and processing notes. Big sagebrush seeds are contained within dry fruit structures called cypselae produced in late autumn. Thousands can occur on a single shrub. Most cypselae fall to the ground naturally for dispersal by various means including seasonal floodwaters. Gathering the cypselae is reasonably easy, but separating them from the abundance of chaff and isolating the actual seeds is problematic because all these parts blow away in the slightest breeze. It’s also possible that some shrubs produce heavier seeds that are easier to winnow. From a historical perspective, big sagebrush was a useful shrub. Strips of bark were woven into blankets, baskets, sandals, and cordage. Resins that exude from the stems were chewed as gum. Dry stems were used to make spindles, hearths, and tinder for starting fires by friction. Sagebrush wood burns hot and effectively repels insects. It was traditionally burned at ceremonies for cleansing the air and dispelling evil spirits. Leaves were crushed and applied to clothing as a natural insect repellent, and hunters applied the leaves to mask the human scent when searching for prey. Overall, big sagebrush is an important resource.

IDENTIFICATION: About 60 species of the Artemisia genus are found in the United States, most of which are native to the West. Sagebrushes are generally woody shrubs, while sageworts are generally herbaceous plants. Leaf shapes are helpful for identifying the various species, and the tarragon scent of wild tarragon is distinctive.

Description of the Artemisia genus: FORM annual to perennial plants or shrubs; with or without hairs; often aromatic; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades of various shapes, commonly triangular with 3 terminal lobes, linear with additional linear lobes, or 2-3 pinnately dissected; margins entire, toothed, lobed, or deeply dissected; FLOWERS disciform or less often discoid; heads small, numerous, and arranged in spikes, racemes, or panicles; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy (or hairy in a few species); RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers cream, yellow, or greenish-white; inconspicuous; all perfect, or the inner ones sterile, or the outer ones pistillate; FRUITS cypselae wedge-, football- or teardrop-shaped, or 2-5 angled; surfaces smooth, ridged, or gland-dotted (rarely hairy); pappi absent (or reduced to minute crowns): HABITAT essentially everywhere; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 biennial wormwood (Artemisia biennis): seeds Chamberlin (p. 362), Couplan (p. 414), and Ebeling (p. 858). #2 field sagewort (Artemisia campestris): seeds Moerman (p. 55, cited as subspecies pacifica). #3 Carruth’s sagewort (Artemisia carruthii): seeds Ebeling (p. 858) and Stevenson (p. 65, cited as A. wrightii). #4 wild tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus): leaves Couplan (p. 413); seeds Chamberlin (p. 363), Couplan (p. 414), Ebeling (p. 130), and Rhode (p. 96). #5 fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida): leaves (as seasoning) Couplan (p. 414); seeds Ebeling (p. 130). #6 western mugwort (Artemisia ludoviciana): shoots Vizgirdas (p. 201); leaves (as seasoning) Castetter (1936 p. 47); seeds Austin (p. 57), Couplan (p. 414), and Vizgirdas (p. 201). #7 Michaux’s sagewort (Artemisia michauxiana): seeds Chamberlin (p. 362, cited as A. discolor) and Couplan (p. 414). #8 big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata): seeds Campbell (p. 165), Clarke (p. 134), Couplan (p. 414), Ebeling (pp. 130 and 531), Moerman (p. 56), and Rhode (pp. 61-63).

Baccharis

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Baccharis genus.

SPECIES: #1 seepwillow baccharis or batamote (Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.). #2 broom baccharis (Baccharis sarothroides A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! The shoots and leaves of baccharis shrubs taste terribly acrid due to compounds called sesquiterpene lactones and baccharis oils that cannot be removed. Several species are known to be harmful to grazing animals. Baccharis shrubs are abundant along watercourses, but they have little value as food. Native Americans living along the lower Colorado and Gila rivers ate the young shoots and leaves of seepwillow baccharis (B. salicifolia) only to prevent starvation. They also used the leaves of this species for various medicinal purposes. Seeds of broom baccharis (B. sarothroides) were brewed into a beverage, and the twigs were brewed into a medicinal tea used to relieve colds.

Seepwillow baccharis (B. salicifolia) leaves of any age taste unpleasant due to excessive amounts of acrid resins. Even the mildest leaves taste more like adhesive bandages than garden vegetables. No part of the flavor suggests that any food value is present. Lettuce-like indications are regrettably undetectable. The same could be said about the shoots. Young leaves are shiny, tacky, and light green. Sampling a few leaves to check the flavor prior to gathering a supply is wise. Acrid, adhesive-flavored, or medicine-flavored leaves are best left alone. Cooking won’t improve the flavor. Eating small servings shouldn’t burn your throat, but larger servings are irritating. Gathering the shoots and leaves is easy. These parts are available from late winter to early summer. Overall, seepwillow baccharis is a wild food of desperate times.

Broom baccharis (B. sarothroides) seeds become available in late autumn or early winter. Tea made from the seeds has the flavor and aroma of freshly milled pine lumber. The match is unmistakable. Acrid resins prevalent in the shoots and leaves are absent from the seeds, or too weak to be an issue. Broom baccharis tea is definitely worth trying. The woody overtones, evergreen accents, and complex subtleness inspire tranquility and memories of a time long gone, when native people walked the banks of unpolluted rivers. Broom baccharis tea restores this purity. It’s the color of desert sand drifting in the eternal wind. Gathering a supply is easy, and a supply is available well into winter. Since the seed heads are cottony, filtering the tea is a good idea. Overall, broom baccharis provides an alternative to the usual beverages, but it won’t provide significant amounts of calories.  

IDENTIFICATION: The Baccharis genus is represented by 20-25 species in the United States, most of which are native to the Southwest. Species described below are 1-3 meter tall shrubs thriving in riparian areas, with simple leaves arranged alternately, and white flowers borne in numerous clusters. The leaves are often sticky from the presence of resin granules. Flower heads are composed entirely of disk flowers (discoid). Male and female flower heads occur on separate shrubs (dioecious).

Description of seepwillow baccharis (Baccharis salicifolia): FORM shrub; STEMS light to medium brown, or greenish, often sticky, and not broom-like; LEAVES simple; alternate; numerous; blades lance-shaped, willow-like, 6-14 cm long, and 3-nerved; margins usually toothed but not spine-tipped; FLOWERS white; discoid; male and female flower heads on different shrubs; FEMALE (pistillate) heads each producing more than 50 flowers; phyllaries dry, papery, and overlapping in several series; FRUITS cypselae with 5 ribs; pappi consisting of numerous, 4-5 mm long, silky hairs that aren’t much longer than the styles; HABITAT sandy, low-elevation, riparian areas from Texas to California, northward to Utah and Nevada; blooming in late summer.

Description of broom baccharis (Baccharis sarothroides): FORM shrub; STEMS branched like a broom (fastigiate); the branchlets green and strongly angled; LEAVES simple; alternate; few; blades scale-like to linear, generally less than 20 mm long, 1-nerved, and falling before the fruits mature; margins usually smooth; FLOWERS white; discoid; male and female flower heads on different shrubs; FEMALE (pistillate) heads each producing 20-40 flowers; phyllaries dry, papery, and overlapping in several series; FRUITS cypselae with 10 ribs; pappi consisting of numerous, 6-11 mm long, silky hairs that are much longer than the styles; HABITAT same as seepwillow baccharis, sandy, low-elevation, riparian areas.

REFERENCES: #1 seepwillow baccharis (Baccharis salicifolia): shoots Cheatham (p. 205); leaves Cheatham (p. 205) and Ebeling (p. 435). #2 broom baccharis (Baccharis sarothroides): branches (as tea) Austin (p. 60); seeds (as tea) Castetter (1935-b p. 27).

Balsamroots

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Balsamorhiza genus.

SPECIES: #1 Hooker’s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri (Hook.) Nutt.). #2 arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: All parts of both species listed above are edible, but the roots are substantially more valuable than the other parts. Differences between these species are seen primarily in form rather than edibility. The following assessment is based on both species listed above and isn’t meant to apply to other species in the genus.

Roots of balsamroots are a valuable food item. Flavors range from pleasantly mild to terribly unappealing. Textures range from soft to woody. Good luck may be needed to find soft roots that taste mild, but they’re out there. Balsamroots can be massive, easily 5-10 times bigger than commercially grown carrots, but bigger isn’t necessarily better. Bigger roots are often tough, woody, strong-flavored, and difficult to acquire. Smaller roots have the advantage of being softer, milder, and easier to acquire. Cooking improves strong-flavored roots, but the improvement is often insufficient. Traditionally, the roots were pit roasted for 24 hours to help subdue the balsamic resins, soften the texture, and bring out a starchy flavor. Freshly dug roots are dull white and covered with thick, brown, bark-like skins. These skins taste awful and need to be peeled. Balsamroots bloom early, produce seeds early, and wither early. Even after the plants wither, the roots endure, thus providing food year-round. Being able to recognize the withered remains is a good skill to have. Overall, roots of balsamroots can potentially serve as a principal food source.

Leaves of balsamroots appear as rosettes very early in spring, often coming up in great abundance through melting snow fields. Younger leaves taste better than older leaves, but the difference is minor. Balsamroot leaves are a poor choice for salads. When eaten fresh, they have a bitter, resinous, balsamic, aspen-like flavor that tends to linger and affect the flavor of other foods. Acrid overtones intensify as the leaves age. Woolly, silky, or raspy hairs help ensure dissatisfaction. Midveins are rather tough, but the texture of young leaves is otherwise chewable, yet not necessarily digestible. Boiling improves the flavor by reducing harsh overtones, but the improvement is minor. It also yields deep green wastewater. Balsamroot leaves are a dire resource, but they’re available in quantity when other resources are scarce. They also mark the locations of roots, which are a much better resource.

Seeds of balsamroots are contained within fruit structures called cypselae (like sunflower seeds still in the shells). Balsamroot cypselae are black, hairless, awnless, and free of anything sharp. Each cypsela contains one seed. Early summer is the ideal time to harvest. Little remains of the plants by the end of summer, except for a few persistent leaves and stalks. Balsamroot cypselae were traditionally gathered by hand, pounded, and winnowed to obtain the seeds. It must have been a tedious process. Cypselae often fail to produce seeds, and bugs claim a large share of those that do produce seeds. Overall, despite the historical importance of balsamroot seeds, they seem to be a resource of limited potential.

NOTES: Balsamroots were important plants to Native Americans, especially in the northern half of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest. Virtually every tribe throughout the range of balsamroots gathered the roots, leaves, and seeds to some extent. At least one tribe (the Okanagan Indians of Washington and British Columbia) considered the roots and seeds principal food sources. My experiences with balsamroots are based on both species mentioned above. Although these experiences were positive, they didn’t suggest that any parts of these plants, except possibly the roots, would serve as principal foods. Even the roots didn’t always make that grade. Some roots were excellent, but others were as hard as wood or too resinous to swallow. The range in flavor and texture was extraordinary. Very few wild foods have such an extreme range in those aspects. Leaves of all the balsamroots I sampled were terribly unappealing. Most of them came from Cottonwood Mountain or the Markagunt Plateau in southern Utah. Perhaps balsamroot leaves taste better in more northern latitudes, but I wouldn’t bet on it. In regard to the seeds, I only tried those of arrowleaf balsamroot. Seeds of this species matured way faster than I predicted. Foraging always involves guesswork, but I’m usually not so far off target. Upon returning to a colony one year thinking I was going to gather the seeds, what I found instead was the seeds long gone and the colony withering into oblivion. So watch your balsamroot colonies! I didn’t repeat that mistake the following year. 

A 100 gram serving of arrowleaf balsamroot (B. sagittata) roots contains: 52.5 kilocalories, 4.1 g of protein, and 11.7 g of carbohydrates. Nutritional data for other parts or other species was not available. Source: Prentiss (p. 119).

IDENTIFICATION: The Balsamorhiza genus is represented by 10-15 species in the United States, of which only 2 occur in the Southwest. Arrowhead balsamroot is common across the northern half of the Southwest, where it’s often the dominant plant on semiarid foothills from 1,500 to 2,500 meters elevation. Established colonies readily resprout after wildfires and heavy grazing, often appearing soon after the snow melts. Species differ according to leaf appearance and a few other features.

Description of Hooker’s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri): FORM perennial plant about 5-40 cm tall emerging from a taproot; LEAVES simple; arranged basally, or with a few bract-like leaves on the stalk-like stems; blades widely lance-shaped in outline; margins toothed or deeply 1-2 pinnately dissected; surfaces usually with rough hairs; FLOWERS radiate; heads showy and arranged individually or up to 3 on long stalk-like stems; phyllaries herbaceous, weakly shingled, and often hairy; receptacles convex and bearing papery chaff folded around the disk flower ovaries; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae prism-shaped or weakly 4-angled; surfaces usually hairless; pappi absent; HABITAT meadows; northern half of the Southwest; blooming April to July.

Description of arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata): FORM perennial plant about 10-60 cm tall emerging from a taproot; LEAVES simple; arranged basally, or with a few bract-like leaves on the stalk-like stems; leafstalks well developed; blades broadly arrow-shaped; margins entire; lower surfaces silvery from felt-like hairs; FLOWERS radiate; heads showy and arranged individually on long stalk-like stems; phyllaries herbaceous, hairy, and arranged in 2-4 series; receptacles convex and bearing papery chaff folded around the disk flower ovaries; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae prism-shaped or weakly 4-angled; surfaces usually hairless; pappi absent; HABITAT open hillsides and meadows; northern half of the Southwest; blooming April to July.

REFERENCES: Kirk (p. 132) states that all parts of all Balsamorhiza species are edible and Vizgirdas (p. 185) suggests that all species may have edible taproots. #1 Hooker’s balsamroot (Balsamorhiza hookeri): roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds Couplan (p. 417); seeds Chamberlin (p. 363). #2 arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata): all parts Tilford (p. 16); roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds Couplan (p. 417); seeds Chamberlin (p. 363).

Beggarticks

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Bidens genus.

SPECIES: #1 Bigelow’s beggartick (Bidens bigelovii A. Gray). #2 needlepoint beggartick, Spanish needles, or pitchforks (Bidens bipinnata L.). #3 common or hairy beggartick (Bidens pilosa L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Beggarticks contain irritating chemicals and the cypselae (dry fruit structures) have dangerous awns. Leaves of all species listed above are edible fresh or cooked, and flowers of Bigelow’s beggartick (B. bigelovii) can be steeped into tea. Fresh leaves (of the species noted in the “notes” section below) taste similar to lettuce with a salty, fishy, resinous accent. Boiled leaves taste similar, but milder. Brief boiling eliminates the accents. Fresh leaves have a rather ordinary texture that’s not particularly firm, crisp, tough, chewy, dry, hairy, slimy, or unpleasant in any way. Beggartick leaves are good prepared as potherbs or tea. The tea is reddish-brown and captures the more appealing aspects of the flavor. It’s definitely worth trying. Beggartick leaves seem to go well with rice, fish, or bean entrées. Harvesting the leaves is easy. The plants aren’t very leafy, but they grow in colonies. The gathering season begins as soon as they can be identified in midsummer and lasts until the various parts dry out sometime in autumn. Overall, beggartick leaves are a good resource.

Seeds of beggarticks are not reported to be edible. They’re contained within well-armed cypselae. The cypselae may look meager, but the seeds inside are relatively large. The husks are thin, which leaves more room for the seeds. The problem is getting the seeds out of the husks. No processing techniques effectively accomplish this objective. Burning misses many of the barbs. Boiling fails to adequately soften the barbs. Pounding, sifting, and winnowing create a mess rather than a meal. Attempting to chew the seeds out of the cypselae is a very bad idea. The barbs present a serious choking hazard. One solution to defeating the barbs is to prepare the cypselae as a beverage. This beverage can be prepared by: toasting whole cypselae, pounding them into a coarse meal, boiling the meal to extract vital nutrients, and then filtering the liquid through fine cloth to remove the dangerous debris. The resulting beverage tastes reasonably good. The flavor combines a fruit-like sweetness with a fish-like accent and an element unique to beggarticks. It’s free of acrid, bitter, resinous, pine-like, thistle-like, or sunflower-like overtones. Actual seeds taste likewise. Harvesting the cypselae is no more difficult than walking through a field. The cypselae practically harvest themselves by attaching to clothing—but please don’t mistake this observation as an endorsement for harvesting beggarticks in this fashion! Soon after attaching to clothing, the cypselae begin digging into the skin. Wearing leg protection is a wise precaution. Consumption of the seeds is not recommended. Beggarticks are best utilized as leafy vegetables.

NOTES: The beggartick field assessments were based on: Bidens bipinnata, B. leptocephala, B. pilosa, and B. tenuisecta. All of which were essentially the same in regard to taste, texture, and aroma, but half of which are not reported to be edible. Beggartick leaves are eaten in many parts of the world including Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and several African countries, and tea made from the flowers of Bigelow’s beggartick (B. bigelovii) was said to be popular among Native Americans and early settlers in Texas (Cheatham p. 298). Based on the species I tried, my impression of beggarticks was exceptionally good. Lettuce seems to be the closest comparison, but even that is off target. The flavor is more complex than lettuce and those complexities are unique to beggarticks. Wild foods often lack a similar-tasting counterpart in cultivated foods. The tea I made was from fewflower beggartick (B. leptocephala) and included the leaves in addition to the flowers. This tea was excellent, but it was not from the intended species—B. bigelovii. Mature beggarticks can be a real menace, as any forager walking through a field of these plants without adequate leg protection is well aware of. Despite the menacing seeds, beggarticks are fine wild foods worthy of a forager’s attention.

IDENTIFICATION: The Bidens genus is represented by about 25 species in the United States, of which about 10 are found in the Southwest. Identifying members of this genus is difficult.

Description of Bigelow’s beggartick (Bidens bigelovii): FORM annual plant about 20-90 cm tall; LEAVES compound or 2-3 pinnately incised; alternate or opposite; FLOWERS radiate, discoid, or disciform; heads arranged in clusters on long stalks; involucres narrowly bell-shaped, about 2-4 mm wide; receptacles chaffy; RAY flowers (when present) white and less than 7 mm long; DISK flowers yellow; FRUITS cypselae linear-fusiform and about equally 4-angled; outer cypselae 6-9 mm long; inner cypselae 10-15 mm long; pappi consisting of 2-3 awns; HABITAT moist canyons at low to mid elevations; Arizona to Texas and southward into Mexico; blooming July to October.

Description of needlepoint beggartick (Bidens bipinnata): FORM annual plant about 30-120 cm tall; stems angled and ridged; LEAVES compound or pinnately cut; opposite; FLOWERS radiate, discoid, or disciform; heads arranged individually or in clusters; involucres bell-shaped, about 3-5 mm wide; receptacles chaffy; RAY flowers (when present) yellowish-white; DISK flowers yellow; FRUITS cypselae linear-fusiform, black, and about equally 4-angled; outer cypselae 7-14 mm long; inner cypselae 12-18 mm long; pappi consisting of 2-4 awns; HABITAT moist canyons at low to mid elevations; primarily of the southeastern United States, Mexico, and southward; uncommon in the Southwest; blooming July to October.

Description of hairy beggartick (Bidens pilosa): FORM annual plant up to 110 cm tall; stems often angled and hairy; LEAVES simple or compound; opposite; divided or pinnate with 3-5 lance-diamond-shaped leaflets; margins toothed or incised; surfaces sparsely hairy; FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged individually or in open clusters; involucres cup-shaped, about 5-8 mm wide and equally tall; receptacles chaffy; RAY flowers yellow or white, 6-15 mm long; DISK flowers yellow; FRUITS cypselae linear-fusiform, about equally 4-angled, straight or slightly curved; pappi consisting of 2-4 barbed awns; HABITAT moist canyons; across the southern United States; blooming July to October.

REFERENCES: #1 Bigelow’s beggartick (Bidens bigelovii): leaves Cheatham (p. 298) and Ebeling; flowers (as tea) Cheatham (p. 297) and Couplan (pp. 418-419). #2 needlepoint beggartick (Bidens bipinnata): leaves Cheatham (p. 297). #3 hairy beggartick (Bidens pilosa): leaves Cheatham (p. 297), Couplan (pp. 418-419), and Hodgson (p. 86).

Nodding Thistle

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Carduus genus.

SPECIES: Musk, nodding, or plumeless thistle (Carduus nutans L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The stems, leaves, and flowers of nodding thistles are edible, but none of these parts make very good foods. Nodding thistle stems have spiny wings that must be shaved, burned, or removed by other means. Shaving the stems is easy. A sharp knife can effectively accomplish this task. Fibers inside the stems are more troublesome than the spiny wings. Lower stems are reinforced with tough fibers that are uncomfortable to chew. Upper stems have softer fibers that can be chewed without discomfort. Boiling won’t adequately soften the fibers, so gathering only the upper stems is recommended. Nodding thistle stems are solid with centers of white pith. The pith is firm, but much softer than the surrounding fibers. Utilizing the pith as food is barely worth the effort required to obtain it. Cutting the stems in half lengthwise and scooping out the pith is reasonably efficient, but the calories gained are minimal. Nodding thistle leaves can also be utilized as food after removing the spiny margins. Boiling won’t adequately soften the spines, unless the leaves are young. Spines need to be cut off or burned off. Neither way is very efficient. Leaves, upper stems, and receptacles taste fairly good. The flavor is reasonably mild, similar to artichokes, and marked by moderate bitterness. Nodding thistle flowers are more like gum than food. They never break up when chewed. Broth made from all the parts combined has a vegetable-like character with some bitterness and some carbohydrate value. It’s not very good, but it can serve as soup. Overall, nodding thistles just weren’t meant to be eaten.

NOTES: Although the roots of many thistles are edible, those of nodding thistle (C. nutans) apparently eluded documentation in ethnobotanical literature. Even the other parts are rarely mentioned. Since nodding thistle is native to Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, usage reports would be expected from those regions rather than North America. Nodding thistle was introduced to North America in the early 19th century and spread rapidly after its introduction. Despite its spread and subsequent availability, Native Americans apparently never incorporated it into their diets, or did so infrequently. In the plant’s native range, only the stems, leaves, and flowers were utilized as food. There was probably a good reason why the roots were never utilized, but this reason is a mystery. Perhaps the roots are too tough, small, or bitter, or perhaps they are toxic. Nodding thistle is of interest to foragers for the same reason it’s despised by farmers, ranchers, and other groups—because it’s abundant. It ranks high on the “most hated list.” Consequently, several biological controls (weevils and other insects) have been employed to manage (destroy) nodding thistle populations, so ridding the Earth of this wild food by eating it shouldn’t bother anybody, except other foragers that want it to be abundant. Only parts that are known to be edible should be eaten, but other parts are worth investigating. “Carduus” is an old Latin word for thistle. Also see the Cirsium genus for more information on thistles.

IDENTIFICATION: The Carduus genus is currently represented by 6 species in the United States, of which only nodding thistle (C. nutans) is well established in the Southwest. Nodding thistle differs from so-called “true thistles” (of the Cirsium genus) by having stems with spiny wings and cypselae with hair-like bristles bearing minute barbs. Cypselae in the Cirsium genus usually have feather-like bristles. There are exceptions.

Description of nodding thistle (Carduus nutans): FORM spiny, biennial plant about 30-170 cm tall; STEMS spiny-winged; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades pinnately cut; bases decurrent as spiny wings; margins wavy and spiny; FLOWERS discoid; heads 3-6 cm across, positioned on nodding stalks, and arranged individually or in clusters; phyllaries lance-ovate, 2-7 mm wide, and spine-tipped; receptacles flat, densely bristly, and without honeycomb-like pits; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers reddish-purple, all perfect; anthers bearing tails (caudate); FRUITS cypselae golden-brown, 3-5 mm long; pappi with minutely barbed hair-like bristles; HABITAT scattered throughout the United States, often colonizing disturbed areas; blooming May to September.

REFERENCES: Nodding thistle (Carduus nutans): stems, leaves, and flowers Couplan (pp. 420-421).

Spiny Aster

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Chloracantha genus.

SPECIES: Spiny aster or devilweed (Chloracantha spinosa (Benth.) G. L. Nesom = Aster spinosus Benth.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The shoots and scale-like leaves are edible. Older stems can be chewed like gum or brewed into tea. Spiny aster leaves are relatively unknown compared to most wild foods, and there’s a good reason for this. Gathering enough for a meal is nearly impossible. The leaves are tiny and wither shortly after seasonal rains. All the leaves of a colony would barely amount to one salad, maybe not even one spoonful. Only a few leaves grow on each plant and they’re practically borne withered. When eaten fresh, they have an acrid, bitter, resinous flavor. Boiling improves the flavor. Spiny asters have no need for leaves. The stems can photosynthesize. For most of the year, these plants look like withered collections of spiny green stems. Shortly after seasonal rains, they spring to life. New shoots appear at the tips of old stems. These new shoots are tender and suitable as food. Only the first 2-4 centimeters are tender and they don’t remain that way very long. Tough fibers soon develop in the cores, after which point the shoots become too tough to eat, but they can still be chewed like gum. Tender new shoots were the part most often utilized by Native Americans. Gathering the new shoots makes more sense than gathering the leaves because the new shoots are larger and easier to gather. The leaves wither almost as fast as the shoots become fibrous, so expediency is important when gathering these wild foods. Tender new shoots taste acrid, bitter, and resinous, much as the leaves do, although not as strong. Remnants of a mysterious vegetable persist in the flavor. Brief boiling improves the flavor. Older stems can be brewed into a flavorful tea with a deep-green essence and complex sweetness. Spiny aster tea is mild. It lacks the harsh qualities of fresh shoots and leaves. Utilizing the stems as tea is a good way to extract vital nutrients from spiny asters after the shoots become tough or the leaves disappear. Spiny asters typically bloom in March or August, but they can bloom anytime in response to rainfall. Although the flowers are not reported to be edible, they taste roughly equivalent to the leaves, except for being more resinous. Overall, spiny asters are shrub-like plants of minor value to foragers.

IDENTIFICATION: The Chloracantha genus consists of 1 species in North America. Although it’s native, it’s considered a weed.

Description of spiny aster (Chloracantha spinosa): FORM native, perennial, shrub-like plant up to 2 meters tall; often forming colonies from rhizomes; STEMS spiny, rigid, upright, clustered, broom-like, greenish, and photosynthetic; LEAVES simple, alternate, sessile, small, scale-like, and short-lived; FLOWERS radiate; heads scattered along the stems; phyllaries thin, dry, 3-nerved, clear along the margins, and arranged in 4-5 series; receptacles convex, smooth, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers white and fertile; DISK flowers yellow and fertile; FRUITS cypselae cylindrical-fusiform, 5-ribbed; pappi consisting of numerous (30-60) hair-like bristles; HABITAT growing in thickets along sandy riverbanks from California to Texas and southward into Mexico at low elevations; blooming March to October, or potentially anytime.

REFERENCES: Spiny aster (Chloracantha spinosa = Aster spinosus): shoots Campbell (p. 142) and Moerman (p. 81); stems (chewed as gum) Elmore (p. 83) and Moerman (p. 81); leaves Ebeling (p. 435).

Rabbitbrush

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Chrysothamnus genus.

SPECIES: #1 green, yellow, or Douglas’ rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus (Hook.) Nutt.). #2 gray or Bigelow’s rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa var. bigelovii (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & Baird). #3 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa ssp. consimilis (Greene) G. L. Nesom & Baird). #4 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa var. graveolens (Nutt.) Reveal & Schuyler). #5 gray rabbitbrush, rubber rabbitbrush, or chamisa (Ericameria nauseosa ssp. nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & Baird).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Rabbitbrushes are essentially inedible due to unhealthful resins that may cause circulatory or respiratory problems. Several species also contain significant amounts of rubber, almost enough to justify extracting it commercially. Latexes and sesquiterpene lactones may also be present. These types of compounds are generally impossible to remove.

With great difficulty, the roots of species #1 and #5 can be chewed as gum. In addition, the flower buds of #3 and seeds of #2 can be utilized as food, and the flowers of #4 can be steeped into tea. Most of these parts taste terribly unappealing and should only be eaten sparingly. Species of the Chrysothamnus and Ericameria genera often consist of numerous subspecies or varieties. The following assessments are based on those noted in the “notes” section below and are not meant to imply that everything in the complexes will have a similar taste, texture, and aroma.

Green rabbitbrush (C. viscidiflorus) is difficult to utilize as food. Roots of any age are essentially wood and splinter into sharp fibers when chewed. Even the youngest roots are woody. A few references indicate that Native Americans obtained gum by cutting the roots and then collecting the secretions. Obtaining gum in this fashion may prove difficult because rabbitbrushes are very dry shrubs. Simmering the roots to produce broth appears to be the best way to utilize this potential resource. The broth has a starchy flavor with a resinous overtone. It’s very appealing and free of harsh accents, but not necessarily free of harmful constituents. Safety data on rabbitbrushes is scarce, so caution is strongly advised. Leaves and flowers of green rabbitbrush are not reported to be edible, but they were sampled for this reference. A terribly acrid flavor renders the flowers unsuitable for any culinary purpose. Boiling fails to subdue the flavor and yields a yellow wastewater of similar disappointment. Eating just a few flowers will burn your throat and leave behind a lingering regret. The same can be said about the leaves. These parts fail to qualify as palatable. Overall, green rabbitbrush is a poor-quality wild food.

Gray rabbitbrush (E. nauseosa) is not one of the better wild foods available in the Southwest. Roots of any age are not recommended for consumption. They taste acrid and lack starch. Part of the flavor suggests an ingredient in vermouth, but the overall flavor is terribly unappealing. Flowers of gray rabbitbrush also taste acrid and smell nasty, but not nasty enough to deter bugs. Gathering only the corollas, pistils, and stamens helps to some extent, but even these parts taste acrid. In a survival situation, gathering the bugs would be a wiser decision. Seeds of gray rabbitbrush are simply too small and too chaffy to utilize as food, except as a beverage. Cypsela bodies are sharp, hairy, and topped with numerous bristles. Attempting to chew the seeds out of the cypselae would not be wise. Whole cypselae are best made into a beverage. They need to be pounded prior to boiling and then filtered afterwards. This beverage is no special treat, but it has food value. Gray rabbitbrush, which is also called chamisa, was used to make chamisa ash. Chamisa ash was an early form of baking soda used as a leavening agent in traditional Native American cooking, somewhat like pearl ash used by early settlers. In addition to serving as a leavening agent, chamisa ash also added minerals to the diet. Overall, gray rabbitbrush is a poor-quality wild food.

NOTES: Field assessments for this book were based on Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus ssp. viscidiflorus and Ericameria nauseosa var. hololeuca from Nevada. A few other species were also sampled. None were found to be worth harvesting. Usage of rabbitbrushes as food among Native Americans was infrequent. White Mountain Apaches of central Arizona ate the seeds of species #2 and San Felipe Indians of central New Mexico ate the flower buds of species #3. Roots were chewed as gum primarily by the Paiute and Goshiute Indians in the northern half of the Southwest. Apparently, usage of rabbitbrushes among rabbits is also infrequent, except as a place to hide from coyotes!

IDENTIFICATION: About 10-15 species of the Chrysothamnus genus and 30-35 species of the Ericameria genus are currently recognized in the United States. Both genera are characterized by a complex set of subspecies and varieties.

Description of green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus): FORM green shrub about 20-80 cm tall, occasionally taller; TWIGS brittle, hairless (or occasionally hirtellous but never tomentose); LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile; blades narrowly linear and often twisted; surfaces usually hairless; FLOWERS discoid; heads all alike and arranged in clusters; involucres 4-8 mm tall, viscid in some varieties; phyllaries overlapping in several series, the tips rounded or acute, but not acuminate or spiny; receptacles convex, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers 3-7, yellow, and perfect; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical or top-shaped; surfaces covered with hairs; pappi consisting of numerous, well developed, hair-like bristles; HABITAT throughout the Southwest and elsewhere.

Description of gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa): FORM gray shrub about 30-170 cm tall; TWIGS covered with short, felt-like hairs (finely tomentose); LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile; blades narrowly linear, generally not twisted; margins entire; surfaces finely hairy; FLOWERS discoid; heads all alike and arranged in rounded clusters; involucres 7-14 mm high; phyllaries overlapping in several series; outer phyllaries shorter than inner ones and lacking herbaceous tips; receptacles convex, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers 4-6, yellow, and perfect; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical or top-shaped; surfaces usually hairy; pappi consisting of numerous, well developed, hair-like bristles; HABITAT virtually everywhere throughout the Southwest.

REFERENCES: #1 green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus): roots (gum) Chamberlin (p. 364, cited as Bigelovia douglasii). #2 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa var. bigelovii): seeds Moerman (p. 82, cited as Chrysothamnus nauseosus ssp. bigelovii). #3 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa ssp. consimilis): flower buds Ebeling (p. 530, cited as Chrysothamnus confinis). #4 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa var. graveolens): flowers (tea) Facciola (p. 36, cited as Chrysothamnus nauseosus var. graveolens). #5 gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa ssp. nauseosa): roots (gum) Moerman (p. 82, cited as Chrysothamnus nauseosus).

Chicory

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Cichorium genus.

SPECIES: Chicory, succory, radicchio, endive, coffeeweed, blue sailors, and probably a few other names (Cichorium intybus L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots, leaves, and flowers are edible fresh or cooked, and these parts are safe to eat in quantity. Chicory is native to Europe and Asia, and considered a “weed” on every continent except Antarctica. It’s been eaten as a salad plant for thousands of years, either cultivated or gathered from the wild (Elzebroek p. 451). Chicory is closely related to endive lettuce (C. endivia). These species differ primarily in lifespan. Forms of both species are still cultivated as leafy vegetables today in Europe and North America (Wright 2001-b pp. 115-148). Chicory was also cultivated for its roots, which can be used to make a coffee-like beverage (Cumo pp. 264-266). This endeavor was prompted by shortages in coffee supplies at various points in history. Chicory can be found throughout the United States, but it’s uncommon in the southwestern states.

Chicory roots can attain the size of carrots, but they’re normally smaller. Bigger isn’t necessarily better. Bigger roots are securely anchored and require more energy to collect. Smaller roots can often be pulled up with no digging required. Chicory roots are brown with whitish interiors. Root textures vary with age and soil conditions. Root cores are usually tough, except in young plants. Portions surrounding the cores represent the best part for consumption, but these portions can be stringy. Skins are thin. Chicory roots contain sugars, including: levulose, pentose, and dextrose. Taste varies according to preparation methods. Raw roots taste bland or bitter. Boiled roots taste starchy, and the resulting broth is delicious. Peeling the skins reduces any earthy overtones. Baking highlights a grain-like accent. Charring the roots followed by brewing produces a coffee-like beverage. Chicory “coffee” is delicious, but it’s not coffee. It’s often unceremoniously characterized as a coffee adulterant. Thorough charring is necessary to bring out its coffee-like aspect. Lightly charring results in a more grain-like beverage. Chicory roots are perfect for adding flavor, nutrition, and color to soup. Overall, chicory roots are an excellent resource.

Chicory leaves are essentially a tough, bitter, hairy, robust version of commercially grown endive lettuce. Some wild forms may be hairless, but the trend is towards hairy. Bitterness is due in part to a compound called cichoric acid. Chicory leaves serve well as a main ingredient in soups and salads, assuming that healthy leaves can be found. Bugs and diseases often ravage the leaves. Even young leaves are susceptible. Finding suitable leaves can be challenging, but definitely worth the effort. Overall, chicory leaves are a fine resource.

NOTES: Chicory roots are rich in a compound called inulin. Many plants, especially in the sunflower family, store energy as inulin rather than starch, which is fine from a plant’s perspective, but not from a forager’s perspective. Inulin is highly resistant to digestion. It passes through the mouth, stomach, and small intestines unaltered, and isn’t metabolized until reaching the colon. Inulin acts like fiber, increases the absorption of certain minerals, promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon, and provides many dietary benefits, but it does not provide many calories, typically 1.5 kcal per gram (Sungsoo Cho pp. 45-47). Starches and sugars typically provide 4 kcal per gram. Although inulin is a poor source of calories, this doesn’t mean that chicory is a poor source of calories. In fact, according to the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, chicory roots provide more calories per 100 gram serving than carrots or white potatoes, 72 versus 41 and 69, respectively. Thus, chicory roots appear to be an excellent source of calories despite their inulin content.

A 100 gram serving (about 3 cups) of raw chicory (Cichorium intybus) leaves contains: 23 kilocalories, 92.00 g water, 1.70 g protein, 0.30 g fat, 4.70 g carbohydrates, 1.30 g ash, 100 mg calcium, 47 mg phosphorus, 30 mg magnesium, 0.90 mg iron, 0.42 mg zinc, 0.295 mg copper, 0.429 mg manganese, 0.3 µg selenium, 45 mg sodium, 420 mg potassium, 5,717 IU vitamin A, 24.0 mg vitamin C, 297.6 µg vitamin K, and other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

A 100 gram serving of raw chicory (Cichorium intybus) roots (about 2 roots) contains: 72 kilocalories, 80.00 g water, 1.40 g protein, 0.20 g fat, 17.51 g carbohydrates, 0.89 g ash, 41 mg calcium, 61 mg phosphorus, 22 mg magnesium, 0.80 mg iron, 0.33 mg zinc, 0.077 mg copper, 0.233 mg manganese, 0.7 µg selenium, 50 mg sodium, 290 mg potassium, 6 IU vitamin A, 5.0 mg vitamin C, and other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Cichorium genus are found in the United States, of which only chicory (C. intybus) is found in the wild. Chicory is closely related to endive lettuce (C. endivia). Differences are seen in life spans and flower stalks. Endive lettuce is an annual plant with thick flower stalks, while chicory is a perennial plant with thin flower stalks. Chicory can be found in all 50 states, but it’s uncommon in the Southwest. Its light-blue flowers are distinctive.

Description of chicory (Cichorium intybus): FORM perennial plant about 3-15 dm tall; hairy or hairless; emerging from a taproot; LEAVES simple; arranged basally and along the stems; lower leaves lance-shaped in outline, with the margins coarsely toothed or deeply cut; upper leaves greatly reduced in size; FLOWERS ligulate; heads borne individually or in clusters of 2-3 in the upper leaf axils; phyllaries arranged in 2 or more series; receptacles flat, pitted, rough-haired, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers blue, perfect, and 5-lobed; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae oblong, 3-5-angled, smooth, hairless, and beakless; pappi consisting of numerous minute scales forming irregular crowns; HABITAT throughout most of the United States, especially along roadsides; blooming late spring or summer.

REFERENCES: Chicory (Cichorium intybus): roots, leaves, and flowers Brill (pp. 234-236), Couplan (pp. 424-425), and many others.

Thistles

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Cirsium genus.

SPECIES: #1 Arizona thistle (Cirsium arizonicum (A. Gray) Petr.). #2 Canada, field, or creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.). #3 dwarf thistle (Cirsium drummondii Torr. & A. Gray). #4 New Mexico, lavender, or powderpuff thistle (Cirsium neomexicanum A. Gray). #5 yellowspine thistle (Cirsium ochrocentrum A. Gray). #6 Parry’s, Mogollon, Cloudcroft, Gila, or pale thistle (Cirsium parryi (A. Gray) Petr. = Cirsium pallidum Woot. & Standl.). #7 meadow thistle (Cirsium scariosum Nutt.). #8 mountain thistle (Cirsium scopulorum (Greene) Cockerell ex Daniels = Cirsium eatonii (A. Gray) B. L. Robinson var. eriocephalum (A. Gray) D. J. Keil). #9 wavy thistle (Cirsium undulatum (Nutt.) Spreng.). #10 bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The taproots, peeled stems, trimmed leaves, flowers, and/or seeds of many thistles are edible fresh or cooked. All species listed above except #6 have edible roots. Species #2 has edible shoots. Species #3, 4, 8, and 9 have edible stems. Species #2 and #10 have edible flower stalks. Species #10 has edible receptacles, and lastly, species #6 and #10 have edible seeds. Francois Couplan (pp. 425-426) indicates that the shoots, stems, leaves, and receptacles of “basically all” thistles are edible. Based on species sampled for this reference (see notes below), the flavors, textures, and aromas of thistles are similar enough to be considered the same.

Thistle roots are an excellent resource. Most species are biennials that produce taproots. A few species are perennials that produce rhizomes. Biennials live for two years. Taproots and leaves form during the first year. Stems, flowers, and seeds form the following year. Some species are stemless. Seed production demands a lot of resources. The biennial life cycle strategy helps ensure that adequate resources are available for seed production. These resources are stored in the roots. One-year-old plants appear as rosettes of spiny leaves. They remain dormant through winter and grow aggressively the following spring. Gathering thistle roots is best done from autumn to spring, or any time prior to when flowers appear. Summer is less favorable because roots of younger plants haven’t fully developed, while roots of older plants are being depleted. First-year roots are usually thick, tender, mild, starchy, and off-white with dark-brown skins. A few species have roots that are thin, tough, and fibrous regardless of age. Inner portions tend to be tougher than outer portions. Irritating fibers, acrid resins, and excessive bitterness are rarely a problem. Thistle roots taste good, except for some minor bitterness. They contain a wealth of nutrition and complex carbohydrates. The flavor is similar to burdock roots with a potato-like accent. The texture is firmer than carrots, but “softer than plywood.” Overcooking the roots is highly unlikely. Simmering yields a delicious broth. Thistle roots are well worth the effort of gathering. Thick stems usually indicate thick roots. It’s a good sign to look for when seeking these vegetables. Thistle roots are a forager’s best friend, and a good item to remember in the cold months of winter when few other wild foods are available.

Thistle stems make excellent vegetables. Stems of some species are better than those of others. Spines are generally confined to the leaves, except in a few species. Ideal stems are sweet, crispy, juicy, stringy, and comparable to celery. Strings are unavoidable, but the texture should be softer than rope. Gathering is best done when the stems are young. Older stems become tough, except for the upper portions. Gloves are certainly recommended for gathering these vegetables. Thistles look formidable, but they’re not so tough. Stepping on one near the base instantly snaps the stem. Processing is easy: simply peel and eat. Fresh thistle stems possess a flavor that’s unrivaled among wild vegetables. Choice stems are truly fantastic, almost sweeter than fruit. They taste better than most vegetables sold in grocery stores. Harsh flavors are rarely a problem, except in a few species where bitterness is more pronounced. Cooking softens the texture, but chewy strings persist. Sliced stems can be tossed into a salad or stewpot. Thistles are juicy. The high water content alleviates thirst better than most desert plants credited with that ability. Juice can be extracted simply by chewing the stems. Overall, thistle stems are a fine resource.

Thistle leaves make poor-quality vegetables, mainly due to the abundance of formidable spines. Bitterness can also be a problem. Spines need to be trimmed, burned, or removed by other means. Cooking doesn’t adequately soften the spines or improve the bitter flavor. Leaves are definitely the worst part of thistles.

Thistle flowers are sweet and chewy, but none of the cited references indicate that they’re edible. Instead, the references indicate that the receptacles (the part where the flowers attach to) are edible. Consuming thistle flowers raw may cause an itching sensation in your mouth or throat, or other adverse effects. Caution is advised. Thistle flowers serve well as gum, but they don’t serve well for other purposes. Thistles don’t have ray flowers. The heads are composed entirely of disk flowers subtended by spiny bracts. No spines occur on the disk flowers. Only the bracts are spiny. Skillful hands can negotiate the spines, but gathering thistle flowers without protection is a precarious endeavor. Finding flowers without bugs can also be challenging. Washing the flowers would seem prudent, but sweetness promptly disappears in the process. Preparing the flowers as a beverage cleans the mess without losing sweetness. The procedure is simple: boil the flowers, filter the liquid, and reduce the liquid by further boiling. The results are superb. Overall, thistle flowers make a delicious beverage or trailside snack, but keep in mind that none of the cited references confirm they are edible.

Thistle receptacles are edible. A “receptacle” is simply a thickened area atop the stems where all the flower parts attach. A “phyllary” is a bract, and a group of phyllaries is called an “involucre.” A typical thistle flower head consists of all these parts. Thistle bracts are spiny and cover the receptacles like scales cover fish. Spines can be trimmed off, but bracts remain unchewable, even after cooking. Receptacles are about the only part that can be chewed, but they’re small, low in calories, and barely worth the effort of acquiring and processing. They taste similar to artichokes with an unappealing overtone.

Thistle seeds are rarely reported to be edible. None of the southwestern species with edible seeds were sampled for this reference, but seeds of other species were. Thistle seeds are a concentrated source of calories, but those of some species contain bitter resins that may trigger allergic reactions. Thistle seeds are enclosed within dry fruits called “cypselae” that come in a variety of colors and have hairy plumes called “pappi.” The cypselae of many plants are often just empty shells, but those of thistles are consistently filled with seeds. Each cypsela contains one seed. The hairy plumes readily detach and blow away. Isolating pure seeds is difficult, but this endeavor is optional. Seeds can be eaten while still in the shells, and the bran-like debris can be spit out. When eaten raw, the flavor is unappealing. Toasting weakens the protective shells and improves the flavor by masking the bitter resins with a charred accent. Be sure to use a lid, or the seeds will fly out of the pan! Toasting is a practical method of preparation that results in a ready-to-eat, ready-to-store product. Boiling the seeds produces thistle mush. If shells are included, the mush will have a bran-like texture. Extracting oil from the seeds is another option, but thousands of seeds are needed for just a few spoonfuls, so this option wouldn’t be practical in a survival situation. Small thistles can produce large seeds, so don’t disregard small plants. Overall, thistle seeds would seem like a valuable resource, but they’re rarely reported to be edible.

NOTES: The field assessments for thistles were based on: Cirsium arizonicum, C. canovirens, C. mohavense, C. neomexicanum, C. ochrocentrum, C. parryi, C. scopulorum, C. undulatum, and C. vulgare. Differences in flavor, texture, and aroma were too minor to merit elaboration, so the descriptions were consolidated. Thistles are special plants that deserve a prominent place in a forager’s mindset. They’re plants of the future, immune to the ravages of civilization. A few species are indeed weeds, but most are harmless and a few are rare. Field thistle (C. arvense), also called Canada or creeping thistle, tops the “most hated” list. Once established, eradication is said to be nearly impossible. Unlike most species, it’s a perennial that spreads aggressively and produces rhizomes rather than taproots. Field thistle is reported to be edible, but the scarcity of references to its edibility is a concern. Other thistles called cotton thistle (Onopordum acanthium) and milk thistle (Silybum marianum) have edible roots, stems, and receptacles. Nodding thistle (Carduus nutans) also has edible uses. Related plants/weeds called star-thistles and knapweeds of the Centaurea genus have no value as food. These inedible plants look substantially different than “thistles” (Cirsium species), so confusion is unlikely.

IDENTIFICATION: Approximately 130 species of the Cirsium genus are found in the United States. The group has a distinctive look, but accurately identifying any particular species is challenging. Other thistle-like plants of the Carduus and Onopordum genera have cypselae with hair-like (capillary) rather than feather-like (plumose) bristles.

Description of thistles (the Cirsium genus): FORM spiny, annual, biennial, or perennial plants about 5-250 cm tall emerging from taproots or rhizomes; STEMS absent or present; solitary or multiple; LEAVES simple; arranged basally and/or alternately along the stems; blades commonly lance-shaped in outline; margins wavy, lobed, and densely spiny; FLOWERS discoid; heads arranged individually or in clusters; phyllaries spine-tipped, overlapping in several series, and often with sticky dorsal ridges; receptacles flat to cone-shaped and bearing bristles or awn-tipped scales; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers perfect, white, yellow, red, purple, or other colors; style tips 1-7 mm long; anthers tailed (caudate); filaments often hairy (papillate); FRUITS cypselae ovoid, somewhat flattened or angled; surfaces smooth and without ribs; pappi consisting of long plumose bristles that detach in rings; HABITAT diverse; throughout the Southwest and Great Basin and elsewhere; blooming primarily in spring and summer.

REFERENCES: Couplan (pp. 425-426) indicates that the shoots, stems, leaves, and receptacles of “basically all” thistles are edible. #1 Arizona thistle (Cirsium arizonicum): roots Ebeling (p. 859). #2 field thistle (Cirsium arvense): roots Facciola (p. 36); shoots and flower stalks Facciola (p. 36) and Pardode-Santayana (p. 192). #3 dwarf thistle (Cirsium drummondii): roots Couplan (p. 425), Ebeling (p. 859), and Yanovski (p. 60); stems Yanovski (p. 60). #4 New Mexico thistle (Cirsium neomexicanum): roots Ebeling (p. 860); stems Moerman (p. 83). #5 yellowspine thistle (Cirsium ochrocentrum): roots Couplan (p. 425). #6 pale thistle (Cirsium parryi = Cirsium pallidum): seeds Castetter (1936 p. 49). #7 meadow thistle (Cirsium scariosum): roots Moerman (p. 83). #8 mountain thistle (Cirsium scopulorum = Cirsium eatonii var. eriocephalum): roots and stems Yanovski (p. 60). #9 wavy thistle (Cirsium undulatum): roots and stems Yanovski (p. 60). #10 bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare): roots, flower stalks, receptacles, and seeds Facciola (p. 37).

Common Horseweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Conyza genus.

SPECIES: Canadian horseweed, common horseweed, or fleabane (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The sprouts, leaves, and tops of the plants are edible. When eaten fresh, young leaves have a strong, resinous, unappealing flavor suggesting a combination of citrus and tarragon. Old leaves are essentially the same, except for being more bristly. Common horseweed leaves are unsuitable as salad material, but boiling improves the flavor and softens the texture, so these leaves are fairly good in soups or stews. When used alone, the flavor can be overwhelming, so mixing these leaves with milder ingredients is advisable. Resinous overtones and annoying hairs normally endure the boiling process. Common horseweed is a leafy plant. Gathering a supply is easy with a simple downward motion that strips the leaves off the stems. Common horseweed is primarily a summer-autumn plant, but it can bloom anytime depending on the climate. As the name indicates, it is indeed common, even on poor-quality land, but its value to foragers is minimal.

NOTES: Common horseweed was seldom used as food by Native Americans. It’s native to North America, but it’s a harsh plant with little potential to serve as food. The Miwok Indians of California were one of the few tribes to eat this nearly ubiquitous plant. If the plant was a good resource, it would have been utilized by more tribes. The sparse coverage in ethnobotanical literature suggests that the plant has problems. One taste will promptly confirm this suggestion! According to Barrett (p. 159), the Miwok pulverized the leaves and tender tops in a bedrock mortar, then ate the mixture without further preparation. It was said to taste like onions. However, in my opinion, I don’t see any resemblance to onions in raw materials, except for the fiery intensity and throat-searing aftertaste. Cooked materials are better, but the resins are hard to subdue. Good luck with this plant!

IDENTIFICATION: The Conyza genus is currently represented by 5 species in the United States, of which only common horseweed (C. canadensis) is established in the Southwest. All the species are “weeds” and horseweed is the most common.

Description of common horseweed (Conyza canadensis): FORM upright, annual plant about 20-140 cm tall emerging from a taproot; STEMS densely leafy and branching only in the upper sections; LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile or tapering to short stalks; blades linear or oblanceolate, 2-9 cm long, and dark green; surfaces rough-haired; margins shallowly toothed; FLOWERS radiate; heads tiny, numerous, and arranged in panicles; phyllaries overlapping in 2-4 series, usually hairless, keeled, 3-veined, and green or brown; receptacles flat and nonchaffy; RAY flowers white, about 1-2 mm long; DISK flowers yellow; FRUITS cypselae elliptic, compressed, and often 2-nerved, surfaces sparsely hairy (strigillose); pappi consisting of 15-25 white bristles; HABITAT diverse; found nearly throughout the world; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: Common horseweed (Conyza canadensis): seedlings Facciola (p. 37); leaves Chmielewski (p. 273) and Facciola (p. 37); leaves and tops of plants Barrett (p. 159, cited as Erigeron canadensis) and Vizgirdas (p. 187).

Hawksbeards

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Crepis genus.

SPECIES: #1 tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata Nutt.). #2 western or showy hawksbeard (Crepis occidentalis Nutt.). #3 fiddleleaf hawksbeard (Crepis runcinata (James) Torr. & A. Gray ssp. glauca (Nutt.) Babc. & Stebbins = Crepis glauca (Nutt.) Torr. & A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Stems of species #1 and leaves of species #2 and #3 are edible fresh or cooked. Other parts and other species are not reported to be edible.

Western hawksbeard (C. occidentalis) is an abundant plant that, from a nontechnical perspective, looks like a dandelion with a stem. It also tastes like a dandelion. Fresh leaves taste bitter due to the presence of milky latex, and woolly hairs compromise the texture. Older leaves tend to lose their hair coverage, but enough hairs persist to make the texture unappealing. Washing removes some of the weakly attached hairs and boiling tones down the bitterness. Boiling can yield broth or wastewater. Some leaves are naturally mild and suitable for soups or salads. Other leaves require a change of cooking water. Sampling a few leaves before gathering a supply is wise. Younger leaves are usually healthier than older leaves, but older leaves are larger and more efficient to gather. Both taste about the same. Basal leaves begin to wither soon after the yellow flowers appear, which is anytime from May to July. Gathering early is recommended. The flowers taste less appealing than the leaves. Western hawksbeard is common across the Intermountain Region and provides foragers with a reliable source of leafy vegetables.

NOTES: It’s likely that more southwestern species of the Crepis genus, possibly all of them, are edible. However, this could not be confirmed and the ethnobotanical record does not support it. In addition to western hawksbeard, I also tried the leaves of tapertip hawksbeard (C. acuminata), which are not reported to be edible. Stems of this species are edible, but the leaves apparently eluded documentation. Tapertip hawksbeard leaves taste very similar to dandelion leaves. The texture is a bit heavier, but it’s pleasant and not as hairy as that of western hawksbeard leaves. Consuming anything of unknown edibility is inherently unwise. However, since the stems of this species are edible, it’s highly likely that the leaves are also edible. I also found a small colony of fiddleleaf hawksbeard (C. runcinata), but it was in a protected area, so I left it alone. Other than these 3 species, no other North American species are reported to be edible. Hawksbeards are part of the “chicory tribe,” a subfamily within the sunflower family with numerous edible plants. The Crepis genus is certainly worth further investigation.

IDENTIFICATION: About 20-25 species of the Crepis genus are found in the United States, of which about 5-10 occur in the Southwest. Several species have additional subspecies.

Description of hawksbeards (the Crepis genus): FORM annual to perennial plants about 3-12 dm tall, with milky sap, often hairy, and often from taproots; STEMS simple or well branched in the upper sections, and often ridged; LEAVES simple; mostly basal or the cauline ones alternate; blades typically lance-, oblance- or narrowly diamond-shaped in outline; margins entire, toothed, or deeply pinnately cut (pinnatifid); FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged in corymbs or panicles; phyllaries arranged in 1-2 series; receptacles flat, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, perfect, and 5-lobed; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae cylindrical or fusiform; rounded in cross section; with 10-20 ribs; tips tapered but usually not beaked; pappi consisting of numerous hair-like bristles (not plumose, but often barbed); HABITAT throughout the western United States and elsewhere, well diversified in the Great Basin; blooming May to August.

REFERENCES: #1 tapertip hawksbeard (Crepis acuminata): stems Moerman (p. 93). #2 western hawksbeard (Crepis occidentalis): leaves Moerman (p. 93). #3 fiddleleaf hawksbeard (Crepis runcinata ssp. glauca = Crepis glauca): leaves Chamberlin (p. 367).

Giant Marshelder

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Cyclachaena genus.

SPECIES: Giant marshelder, giant sumpweed, or carelessweed (Cyclachaena xanthiifolia (Nutt.) Fresenius = Iva xanthifolia Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: As evidence from archaeological sites indicates, giant marshelder provided an important source of leaves and seeds for Native Americans in New Mexico (Ebeling pp. 531-532), and it may have been cultivated to some extent very early in North American history (Wesson p. 126 and Tull 1999 p. 38).

From a nontechnical perspective, one could say that giant marshelders have the leaves of sunflowers and the flowers of ragweeds. The leaf blades, especially the lower surfaces, are velvety. Leafstalks have rougher hairs. Giant marshelder leaves are better cooked than fresh. Simmering initially produces a foul aroma. Eventually, a more vegetable-like aroma prevails. Cooked leaves are bitter, resinous, strong-flavored, and marginally within the limitations of palatable. Foul accents are difficult to subdue. The texture is mushy, breaking apart with virtually no resistance. Velvety hairs pose no problems. Simmering the leaves alone and discarding the water seems to be the best option. The cooking water won’t pass for broth. Adding the leaves directly to soups would be a “serious culinary misjudgment.” Giant marshelder leaves are less acrid than sunflower leaves, but still unappealing.

Giant marshelder produces tiny seeds contained within dry fruits called cypselae. The cypselae are smooth, black, unarmed, and only about 2 mm long. Actual seeds inside are off-white. One plant can rapidly produce thousands of cypselae. Only a few weeks pass by from when the cypselae first appear to when they’re ready to harvest. Prior to maturity, moisture in the green flower heads is troublesome. Gathering is easier after the flower heads turn brown and dry out. Cypselae stick to moist chaff, but dry chaff readily blows away. Although harvesting the cypselae is easy, isolating the actual seeds inside is difficult. Sifting, filtering, winnowing, and other separation techniques fail to effectively remove the shells. Seeds and shells have approximately the same size, weight, and buoyancy. Since the cypselae lack sharp protrusions, they can be eaten unprocessed and the bran-like shells can be spit out. Unprocessed cypselae taste bitter, unappealing, and similar to ragweed. The cooked flavor is nearly identical. Toasting weakens the shells and masks the flavor with a charred accent. Grinding yields a crude seed butter with a bran-like consistency. Little bits of shells stick to the butter and refuse to blow away. Bitterness is more prevalent in the shells. Simmering the coarsely ground cypselae produces a murky greenish-brown broth of mediocre quality. Seeds and shells sink in water. Neither can effectively be poured off. Despite the historical importance of giant marshelder, the leaves and seeds are not very appealing.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Cyclachaena genus is currently recognized in the United States. It was formerly included within the Iva genus with about 5 other southwestern species, all of which look substantially different enough to make misidentification highly unlikely. Cyclachaena differs from Iva by having flower heads arranged in panicle-like arrays rather than spike-like or raceme-like arrays. Flower heads in Cyclachaena also tend to lack bracts.

Description of giant marshelder (Cyclachaena xanthifolia): FORM robust, annual plant about 4-22 dm tall from a taproot, generally appearing like a sunflower and considered a weed; LEAVES simple; often arranged oppositely below and alternately above; stalks long; blades lance-, egg- or heart-shaped; margins smooth or toothed (singly or doubly serrated); surfaces hairy (soft or rough) and often gland-dotted; FLOWERS disciform; heads tiny, numerous, inconspicuous, and arranged in panicles; bracts generally absent; phyllaries free and arranged in 2 series of 5, the outer series green, the inner series thin and nongreen; receptacles chaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers green, yellow, or white; FRUITS cypselae wedge-, egg- or pear-shaped; black; smooth, finely striated, or hairy; weakly compressed; not winged; and not burr-like; pappi absent; HABITAT throughout most of the Southwest in low-lying, disturbed, or temporarily flooded areas; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: Giant marshelder (Cyclachaena xanthiifolia = Iva xanthifolia): leaves and seeds Ebeling (pp. 531-532); seeds (Tull 1999 p. 38).

Dune Dicoria

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Dicoria genus.

SPECIES: Dune dicoria or desert twinbugs (Dicoria canescens A. Gray ssp. brandegeei (A. Gray) Kartesz = Dicoria brandegeei A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Flowers and seeds of dune dicoria are edible. The flowers bloom from summer to autumn in response to seasonal rains, and the seeds mature in winter when few other resources are available. Both parts are sticky and aromatic. The aroma consists of fruity, evergreen, and fetid elements combined into a predominantly pleasing fragrance. No parts taste as good as they smell. Dune dicoria is a shrub-like annual adapted to sandy habitats. It’s especially common in the Mojave Desert.

Dune dicoria flowers are small, bitter, resinous, hairy, and distasteful. The flavor is “acquired” and fails to suggest that any food value is present. The texture is easily chewable. Even the stem tips are chewable and free of fibrous debris. Hairs on the flowers and other young parts pose no problems. Hairs on older parts become raspy. Male flowers produce copious amounts of allergenic pollen and tend to be more common than female flowers. Boiling improves the flavor, but the improvement is minor, and nutrients in the pollen are lost in the process. Gathering the flowers is reasonably easy. They bloom from August to November.

Dune dicoria seeds are pitifully small, difficult to harvest, difficult to process, and contained within sharp-winged cypselae (dry, one-seeded, shell-like fruit structures). The plants turn silver-brown and brittle when the seeds are ready to harvest. Signs of life gradually subside as the seeds mature. Threshing the plants loosens a few cypselae, but the majority of them remain attached. The force necessary to release the cypselae inadvertently breaks little bits of stems into the collection. Isolating the actual seeds is basically an exercise in futility. Attempting to chew the seeds out of the cypselae is a very bad idea because the sharp edges present a serious choking hazard. Dune dicoria cypselae are like little saw blades. Boiling does nothing to soften the edges, but charring the cypselae with live coals helps. Despite the drawbacks, the seeds have a good flavor and a pleasing aroma. Both are enticing and suggestive of a hearty meal. Dune dicoria seeds definitely have food value, but obtaining that value is a challenge. Overall, dune dicoria seeds are probably best left for small animals that can be hunted as a source of nourishment.

NOTES: Dune dicoria seeds were harvested by the Cahuilla Indians of southern California, or at least by their ancestors. Evidence from the Myoma Dunes excavation showed that the seeds were an important food harvested in winter, a time when few other resources were available (Ebeling p. 335). The dicoria seeds I harvested were primarily from the La Posa Dunes in western Arizona, where I was able to observe the plant through its entire life cycle. Dune dicoria is an amazing plant that doesn’t seem to have any requirement for water. How this plant can grow in such dry places is truly a miracle. I never had much luck gathering or processing the cypselae, mainly due to the sharp chaff. Uprooting entire plants and shaking or threshing them over a tarp may seem like a practical way to harvest the cypselae, but two factors complicate this endeavor: the cypselae refuse to let go and the plants are brittle. The result tends to be a collection of broken plant material mixed with cypselae that can’t be winnowed because they weigh the same as the chaff. Winnowing (separating seeds from chaff with the wind) only works when the seeds and chaff differ in weight. Harvesting dune dicoria cypselae by hand won’t solve these problems. Even after all the chaff is eliminated, the cypselae still need to be processed to remove the sharp edges. Obtaining pure seeds would be ideal, but that didn’t seem to be an option. Charring the cypselae with live coals then pounding the results into flour had the best outcome, but it fell short of an ideal outcome. Other processing techniques were less effective. Perhaps the Cahuilla Indians have a better strategy. As the name indicates, dune dicoria inhabits sand dunes. It’s common across the northern Sonoran Desert, where a forager can try this ancient wild food.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Dicoria genus is found in the United States, primarily in the Mojave Desert. Dune dicoria (D. canescens) has up to 4 subspecies separable by minor differences, but these differences are inconsistent in the field and not always accepted as sufficient criteria for dividing the species. The name twinbugs refers to the pairs of roach-like cypselae. It’s a distinctive look, unlikely to be confused with cypselae of other dune plants.

Description of dune dicoria (Dicoria canescens): FORM shrub-like annual about 3-9 dm tall with a rounded form; STEMS profusely branched and usually woody toward the bases; LEAVES simple; arranged alternately and oppositely, with the opposite pairs positioned lower; blades lance-ovate and densely covered with white hairs (canescent, sericeous, or strigulose); margins smooth or shallowly toothed; FLOWERS discoid or disciform; heads arranged individually or a few in sub-sessile clusters toward the stem tips; phyllaries of 2 types: the outer ones 3-6, free, and green; the inner ones 1-4, elliptic to ovate, thin, nongreen, each subtending a pistillate floret, appearing somewhat leaf-like, and becoming much larger than the outer ones with age; receptacles convex and chaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers inconspicuous; unisexual or perfect; pistillate florets 1-4, corollas absent; staminate florets 5-20, corollas white; FRUITS cypselae flat, oval, 3-6 mm long, and with distinctive wings that are sharp, toothed, or irregularly cut (erose); pappi absent; HABITAT sand dunes; primarily in the Mojave Desert; blooming in summer or autumn.

REFERENCES: Dune dicoria (Dicoria canescens ssp. brandegeei = Dicoria brandegeei): flowers Couplan (p. 429) and Hodgson (p. 86); seeds Couplan (p. 429), Ebeling (p. 395), and Hodgson (p. 86).

Prairie Dogweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Dyssodia genus.

SPECIES: Prairie dogweed or fetid marigold (Dyssodia papposa (Vent.) Hitchc.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The seeds can be ground into flour and the tops of the plants can be cooked as greens. The tops of the plants can also be steeped into tea. 

NOTES: Prairie dogweed was never located during the field research conducted for this reference. It’s primarily a plant of the Great Plains, but it’s also found in the eastern half of the Southwest. The reference cited below refers to the Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache Indians. Mention of this plant being used as food is rare in ethnobotanical literature. On the Great Plains, it was used as medicine, but apparently not as food.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Dyssodia genus is currently recognized in the United States. Former species were moved into related genera. The Adenophyllum, Pectis, Porophyllum, Tagetes, and Thymophylla genera are very similar to Dyssodia. All these genera are dotted with conspicuous resin glands and differentiated by the phyllaries. Only Dyssodia species produce phyllaries that are arranged in 2 rows and united merely at the bases. An additional set of short, narrow, green bracts is also present. Most other genera in the sunflower family do not have leaves and phyllaries dotted with resin glands.

Description of prairie dogweed (Dyssodia papposa): FORM odorous plant about 4-35 cm tall and dotted with yellowish-orange to brownish resin glands; LEAVES opposite, or alternate along the upper stems; blades deeply 1-2 pinnately divided (pinnatisect); the segments linear and often further divided; surfaces hairy or hairless; FLOWERS radiate; heads numerous and terminating the stems; phyllaries arranged in 2 rows, united only at the bases, bearing conspicuous resin glands, and often with an additional set of short, narrow, green bracts at the bases; receptacles convex, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae narrowly pyramid- or cone-shaped; pappi consisting of 15-20 scales divided into numerous bristles; HABITAT primarily the southern Great Plains; common in Arizona and New Mexico and southward; blooming July to October.

REFERENCES: Prairie dogweed (Dyssodia papposa): tops of plants and seeds Castetter (1936 pp. 47-48).

White Brittlebush

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Encelia genus.

SPECIES: White brittlebush or golden-hills (Encelia farinosa A. Gray ex Torr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! White brittlebush is unsafe. It was used primarily as medicine rather than food.

White brittlebush stems exude clear yellow resins that can be chewed like gum or used as seasonings, and the foliage can be brewed into a medicinal tea. The shrub is otherwise inedible. Accumulations of resins tend to occur where branches have been broken by stress. At first, the resins are sticky, aromatic, and in a liquid state. Upon exposure to air, they dry into a solid form that’s easy to collect. Sun-dried droplets are soft enough to chew and have a texture similar to gum. The flavor, however, is truly some distance from anything even vaguely similar to gum. It’s more like a combination of incense, turpentine, and dandelion leaves. It’s not terribly unappealing, but the odd overtones really conflict with the usual perception of what gum should taste like. The sticky texture also conflicts with that perception. The resin droplets can also be used as bullion to make a “distinctive” broth, but it’s not a broth that could pass a taste test without cheating! The juicy young stems taste more like food, but they are not reported to be edible. White brittlebush is a dominant shrub growing in association with creosote. Consumption of any parts is not recommended.

NOTES: In the Dome Rock Mountains of southwestern Arizona, I had the opportunity to try white brittlebush gum, tea, and seasoning. It was a real “education” for my taste buds. Sipping tea made from the leaves or stem resins caused a mild burning sensation in my mouth, followed by a tingling sensation, and then finally numbness. This tea is unsafe and should never be used on a regular basis. It’s a medicinal tea rather than something to enjoy on social occasions. Traditionally, it was used to relieve the pain of arthritis. Leaves or stem resins can be applied directly to toothaches to relieve pain. Aside from the various medicinal uses, white brittlebush is best left alone. The resins are neither candy nor gum. They are medicine or incense. One of the many common names for the shrub is “incienso,” which is Spanish for incense. After one smell or taste, the name will make perfect sense. The resins were often burned as incense, and they’re certainly better for that purpose than for food. Chewing the resins might help a forager feel more connected to the people that called the Dome Rock Mountains home, but it certainly won’t do much to please the taste buds or satisfy hunger.

IDENTIFICATION: The Encelia genus is represented by 8 species in the United States, all of which are thornless shrubs with leafy stems native to the Southwest. The closely related Enceliopsis genus has 3 species, but they don’t have leafy stems. Other species of the Encelia genus differ by having flower heads arranged individually rather than in clusters.

Description of white brittlebush (Encelia farinosa): FORM aromatic, desert shrub about 30-120 cm tall; STEMS white, brittle, and often exuding golden resins; LEAVES simple, alternate, and often crowded on the lower branches; blades triangular, lance-, egg-, heart- or diamond-shaped; margins entire; surfaces silvery-green from a dense covering of felt-like hairs; FLOWERS radiate; heads 2-14 on long stalks arranged in flat-topped clusters; phyllaries green, hairy, and overlapping in 2-3 series; receptacles flat to convex, and bearing scaly chaff; RAY flowers yellow, sterile, and about 8-20 mm long; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, fertile, and 5-lobed; FRUITS cypselae narrowly egg-shaped and strongly flattened; surfaces hairy; pappi absent; HABITAT abundant and widespread in deserts; blooming December to May.

REFERENCES: White brittlebush (Encelia farinosa): stem resins (chewed as gum) Austin (p. 68), Castetter (1935-b p. 28), Couplan (pp. 429-430), and Moerman (p. 107); leaves (as a medicinal tea) Yetman (2002-b p. 145).

Red-dome Blanketflower

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Gaillardia genus.

SPECIES: Red-dome blanketflower (Gaillardia pinnatifida Torr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The Havasupai Indians of northwestern Arizona apparently utilized the seeds of red-dome blanketflower as food. References to any species of the Gaillardia genus being utilized as food are extremely rare in ethnobotanical literature. According to Whiting (p. 247), the Havasupai knocked the “seeds” (presumably the cypselae) into a gathering basket, and then roasted, ground, and formed the seeds into butter. Actual seeds are very small and contained within bristly cypselae bearing awn-tipped scales. Gathering the cypselae is easy, but isolating the seeds is difficult. Simply grinding the cypselae into butter is a bad idea due to the sharp awns and bristles. Processing is necessary to remove these parts. The Havasupai call this plant “immetale.” It’s abundant in their homeland along the south rim of the Grand Canyon. Overall, red-dome blanketflower seems to be a wild food of limited potential.

NOTES: Attempts to process the cypselae during the fieldwork conducted for this reference only resulted in a collection of chaff. No easy way to utilize the seeds as food was determined. Considering the scarcity of references, red-dome blanketflower should be approached with caution. A related species called Indian blanketflower (G. pulchella), which is not reported to be edible, is the state flower of Oklahoma. It’s well known for covering fields with a blanket of vibrant color.

IDENTIFICATION: The Gaillardia genus is represented by 10-15 species in the United States, about half of which occur in the Southwest and Great Basin. Red-dome blanketflower is distinguished from other species by its reddish disk flowers, completely yellow ray petals, and deeply cut leaf margins.

Description of red-dome blanketflower (Gaillardia pinnatifida): FORM perennial plant about 10-40 cm tall emerging from a taproot; LEAVES simple; primarily basal or a few alternate along the stems; blades shallowly to deeply pinnately lobed; FLOWERS radiate; heads usually arranged individually on long stalks; phyllaries green, hairy, lanceolate, and overlapping in 2-3 series; receptacles dome-shaped and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, sterile, and 3-lobed; DISK flowers dark red to brownish-purple, perfect, fertile, and woolly; the lobes acute rather than acuminate; FRUITS cypselae pyramid-shaped and hairy; pappi consisting of 6-10 awn-tipped scales; HABITAT primarily the Great Plains to Utah, Arizona, and southward; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: Red-dome blanketflower (Gaillardia pinnatifida): seeds Moerman (p. 119) and Whiting (p. 247).

Gallant Soldier

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Galinsoga genus.

SPECIES: Gallant soldier, quick-weed, potato-weed, kew-weed, or guascas (Galinsoga parviflora Cav.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Gallant soldier is edible fresh or cooked. Leaves are the best part. Roots, stems, and flowers tend to be wiry, fibrous, or chewy. Fresh leaves have a mild flavor suggesting a combination of chicory, thistle, lettuce, and chamomile. It’s a delicious, complex flavor with a resinous overtone. Fresh or dry, these leaves are suitable to use as culinary herbs. The fresh texture is delicate, except for some roughness imparted by surface hairs. These hairs pose no problems. Gallant soldier is a small plant without many leaves. It grows in colonies that can take over entire mountain ranges. Gathering the plant is easy, but hundreds are needed for just one meal. Tossing whole plants into a stewpot is a bad idea, because the stems have splinter-like fibers and the roots are tough. Leaves alone provide the best material for eating. The flowers have a chewy texture and taste more resinous than the leaves. Steeping the flowers in hot water produces an excellent tea. Leaves should always be checked for diseases and processed immediately. Despite all the drawbacks, gallant soldier is a good resource appearing in late summer.

NOTES: The gallant soldier field assessments were based primarily on colonies from the Sacramento Mountains in central New Mexico. Gallant soldier is native to South America and considered a weed worldwide. It’s also considered to be an indicator of good-quality soil. In its native range it’s called “guascas” and eaten fresh as a leafy vegetable or sold dry as a culinary seasoning (Davidson 2006). Several accounts describe the leaves as flavorful and I certainly agree with those accounts. Other accounts portray gallant soldier as a weed that tends to monopolize agricultural lands. It grows quickly, often where it’s not wanted, which explains the derogatory names. I prefer to look at the beneficial aspects of plants. “Guascas” is a key ingredient of Ajiaco Bogotano (a Colombian chicken and potato soup). From a forager’s perspective, gallant soldier is a welcome weed. In the southwestern United States, it’s found primarily in the mountains of southern Arizona and southern New Mexico, especially in the Sacramento Mountains.

A 100 gram serving of gallant soldier (Galinsoga parviflora) leaves contains: 3.2 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 5.2 g carbohydrates, 1.1 g fiber, 284 mg calcium, 60 mg magnesium, 58 mg phosphorus, 5.3 mg iron, 1.3 mg zinc, and plenty of vitamins. Source: Grubben (p. 299).

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Galinsoga genus are found in the United States, and only 1 species is found in the Southwest.

Description of gallant soldier (Galinsoga parviflora): FORM sparsely hairy, annual plant about 7-50 cm tall emerging from fibrous roots; LEAVES simple; arranged oppositely with the pairs well spaced; stalks 5-12 mm long; blades narrowly to widely lance-shaped, about 25-40 mm long; margins toothed (denticulate); FLOWERS radiate; heads tiny, 2-5 mm high, and arranged terminally or clustered in the leaf axils; phyllaries arranged in 2 series and persistent after the fruits mature; receptacles cone-shaped and chaffy, the scales thin and dry; RAY flowers sterile or pistillate; the rays white and about 1 mm long; DISK flowers perfect, fertile, and yellow; FRUITS cypselae obconic to obpyramidal, black, hairy, tiny, and about 2 mm long; pappi of disk cypselae absent or consisting of 10-20 fringed scales; pappi of ray cypselae similar but greatly reduced; HABITAT southern New Mexico to California; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: Gallant soldier (Galinsoga parviflora): whole plant Couplan (pp. 431-432); leaves Grubben (pp. 299-300), Harrington (pp. 76-77), and Peterson (p. 58).

Curlycup Gumweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Grindelia genus.

SPECIES: Curlycup gumweed or gumplant (Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: (gum and tea only): Warning! Curlycup gumweed can concentrate toxic levels of selenium. In addition, the various parts contain bitter alkaloids, tannins, glucosides, and excessive amounts of resins that are essentially impossible to remove. Historically, curlycup gumweed was used primarily for medicinal purposes rather than food, tea, or gum. Early settlers and Native Americans used it to relieve symptoms of asthma and bronchitis, and to treat poison ivy. Leaves of a related species called hairy gumweed (Grindelia hirsutula Hook. & Arn. = Grindelia robusta Nutt.) were eaten as a fresh vegetable by the Karok Indians of California (Moerman p. 122 and Campbell p. 138).

The leaves and flower heads of curlycup gumweed (G. squarrosa) can be chewed as gum or made into tea. Nothing about these parts is honestly gum-like. The texture is equivalent to normal vegetables that quickly break apart when chewed. Curlycup gumweed is sticky, aromatic, resinous, and rubbery. The aroma is pleasant, but the flavor is terribly acrid. The flower heads make a slightly better “gum” than the leaves. Chewing these parts may cause itching, burning, or irritation in susceptible individuals, so caution is advised. A trace of sweetness may be noticeable under any discomfort. Tea made from the leaves or flower heads captures the unappealing aspects of fresh parts and does little to minimize the acrid overtones. Gumweed is a terrible wild food regardless of how it’s prepared. Consumption is not recommended.

NOTES: Curlycup gumweed (G. squarrosa) lines the western highways for thousands of miles. My initial contact with it was along the I-70 corridor somewhere in eastern Utah. I tried the leaves and flower heads. After about 5 seconds, I “discarded” these parts and took a long sip of water to cool off my throat. I have a high tolerance for spicy foods and I’m certainly willing to try new foods, but curlycup gumweed was beyond the limits of palatable. Subsequent samples across Utah and into Nevada only confirmed the initial one. The excessive amounts of resins make the various parts extremely acrid, and the other harmful constituents provide another good reason to leave this plant alone. References to using curlycup gumweed as gum are almost nonexistent. Simply knowing whether or not a plant “can be eaten” is good to know, but a broader context is necessary for truly understanding the value of plants. A lot of things “can be eaten,” but are they safe? How much can be eaten? To what extent did Native Americans utilize them? Are they common, reliable, easy to harvest, and easy to process? These types of questions teach us the value of plants. When we ask those questions about curlycup gumweed, the answer is not what we want to hear. Curlycup gumweed is best left for drivers to look at when traveling down the highways. Its value as food, gum, or tea is negligible.

IDENTIFICATION: The Grindelia genus is represented by about 30 species in the United States, most of which are native to the West. Curlycup gumweed (G. squarrosa) has ray petals (several species lack them). Other distinctive features include: thick leaves and phyllaries with recurved tips.

Description of curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa): FORM short-lived, perennial plant about 15-85 cm tall and sparsely to abundantly resinous; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades thick, oval or oblanceolate; margins smooth or toothed (crenate-serrulate); upper leaves often clasping the stems; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS radiate; heads sticky and resinous; phyllaries rough, green, overlapping in several series, and ending in recurved tips (squarrose); receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, with about 25-40 petals; DISK flowers yellow and 5-toothed; FRUITS cypselae short and thick; pappi consisting of 2 awns that readily detach; HABITAT barren areas and disturbed sites throughout the Southwest, especially along roadsides; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: Curlycup gumweed (Grindelia squarrosa): leaves (prepared as tea) Vizgirdas (p. 192); leaves (chewed) Couplan (p. 432); flower heads (chewed as gum) Vizgirdas (p. 192).

Sunflowers

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Helianthus genus.

SPECIES: #1 common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). #2 Nuttall’s sunflower (Helianthus nuttallii Torr. & A. Gray). #3 prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Seeds of all species listed above are edible. Plus, the leaves, receptacles, and ray petals of common sunflower (H. annuus) are edible. These parts of other southwestern species apparently eluded documentation in ethnobotanical literature. No tuber-bearing species, except for Nuttall’s sunflower (H. nuttallii), occur in the Southwest, and the tubers of this species are not reported to be edible. The following notes are based on all species listed above (plus an additional one) and are not meant to imply that all sunflowers will taste the same.

Sunflower leaves generally taste unpleasant, fresh or cooked. There’s no right way to prepare them. All ways produce equally unsatisfactory results. Sunflower leaves are resinous and covered with rough hairs. Boiling softens the rough hairs, but fails to subdue the extremely acrid resins. The artichoke-like undertone would be fine without the resins, but the resins outcompete contending flavors. Young and old leaves taste equally bad, so gathering them at a particular age won’t help. Species of the Southwest tend to be extra hairy and extra resinous.

Sunflower flower heads may look like good wild foods, but they generally taste awful due to acrid resins. They’re not much better than the leaves. The flower heads are often compared to artichokes due to a number of similarities. Artichokes are the flower heads of Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). Flower heads of southwestern species can be used in a similar way, but they make poor “artichoke substitutes” due to the acrid resins and tough texture. In the Southwest, common sunflower (H. annuus) has the largest flower heads and prairie sunflower (H. petiolaris) has the smallest. Center portions of the heads where the various parts connect are called receptacles, and the scale-like bracts surrounding the receptacles are called phyllaries. These parts are usually tough even after cooking. Overall, sunflower flower heads have limited value to foragers.

Sunflower seeds are produced in great abundance in autumn. They’re packaged within dry, shell-like structures called cypselae. Sunflower cypselae are usually thin, hairy, topped with 2 awns, and filled to capacity with valuable seeds. Each cypsela contains one seed. Chewing whole cypselae and spitting out the shells is possible, but rather uncomfortable due to the rough hairs. Awns of wild species readily detach and don’t pose any problems, but the hairs are irritating. Gathering the cypselae is reasonably easy, and should be done soon after maturity. Otherwise, strong winds will disperse the harvest. Winnowing the chaff is easy, but isolating the actual seeds is difficult. Traditionally, whole cypselae were coarsely ground and placed in water. Broken shells tend to sink, while seeds tend to float. This phenomenon isn’t 100% effective, but it’s helpful. Seeds are slightly more buoyant than shells, yet either part can sink, float, or remain in suspension. Small amounts of oil rise to the water’s surface. Huge quantities of cypselae are required to produce sunflower oil. When eaten fresh, the cypselae taste similar to cultivated sunflower seeds still in the shells. The crunchy shells of wild species can be chewed without fear of chipping teeth, but they present a choking hazard due to the rough hairs. Strong resins that permeate other parts of sunflowers are virtually absent from the seeds. Sunflower seeds are nutritious and valuable to foragers. Sprouting the seeds is also an option, but some calories and nutrients would be lost to the growing plant.

Common sunflower (H. annuus) easily ranks as the best species. It’s taller than most other species and produces bigger seeds. It’s also one of the most common species, so the name is appropriate. The notes above certainly apply to this species. Common sunflower appears in early summer, often along roadsides across the United States. Recognizing it is easy, even after it dries out and turns brown in autumn. Gloves are recommended for handling the rough seed heads. Most of the awns detach when the cypselae are forced out of the seed heads. They often go unnoticed. Seeds of common sunflower were an important source of food to Native Americans, but other parts are barely fit for consumption.

Western sunflower (H. anomalus = H. deserticola) is not reported to be edible, but it was assessed during the fieldwork conducted for this reference. It’s excessively chaffy and ranks among the worst species. The cypselae mature when temperatures are still dangerously hot. The cypselae are fairly sizable, but sifting out the chaff and obtaining pure seeds is difficult. Pure seeds taste equivalent to those of store bought sunflower seeds. Leaves and flower heads are saturated with acrid resins and covered with bristly hairs. Boiling these parts does not eliminate the resins or adequately soften the hairs. Western sunflower blooms anytime from spring to autumn and thrives in sand dunes in the Canyonlands of northern Arizona and southern Utah.

Nuttall’s sunflower (H. nuttallii) is a tall mountain species with some unique features. It produces flat cypselae of impressive size. Gathering the cypselae is easy, and they’re unusually persistent, often clinging to upside-down seed heads struggling against the relentless wind. The wing-like shells readily separate from the seeds and tend to float in water rather than sink. Leaves, flowers, and seeds of this species taste equivalent to those of other species. Unlike other species, Nuttall’s sunflower often produces tubers. No references indicate that the tubers are edible, but several species in the genus do have edible tubers (see notes below). Nuttall’s sunflower blooms from late summer to early autumn and grows in scattered locations throughout the western United States.

Prairie sunflower (H. petiolaris) is a small species producing small cypselae that readily drop in gusty winds. Few cypselae persist beyond autumn, so harvesting them soon after maturity is important. Cypselae of this species are somewhat labor intensive to harvest, but yields can be impressive and better foods may not be available. The chaff is weak, so gloves shouldn’t be necessary when harvesting. Prairie sunflower blooms from early summer to autumn and grows throughout the Great Plains, Intermountain Region, and Southwest. It can cover entire fields and thrive on marginal land. Except for size, most aspects are similar to other species described above.

NOTES: Few other plants ranked of equal importance to Native Americans than sunflowers. Sunflower seeds were a staple of life. Virtually every tribe across North America harvested the seeds. “Helios” means the sun and “anthos” means flower, in reference to the appearance, and tendency of sunflowers to face the sun. Roots of Cusick’s sunflower (H. cusickii), Maximilian’s sunflower (H. maximiliani), and Jerusalem artichoke (H. tuberosa) are edible, but these species do not occur in the Southwest. Rare species of the Southwest include: Arizona sunflower (H. arizonica), paradox sunflower (H. paradoxus), and New Mexico sunflower (H. praetermissus).

A 100 gram serving of dried sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus) contains: 584 kilocalories, 20.78 g protein, 51.46 g fat, 20.00 g carbohydrates, 8.6 g fiber, 78 mg calcium, 660 mg phosphorus, 325 mg magnesium, 5.25 mg iron, 5.00 mg zinc, 9 mg sodium, 645 mg potassium, 35.17 mg vitamin E, various B vitamins, and other nutrients. The information is presumably based on cultivated rather than wild varieties. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: About 60 species of the Helianthus genus are found in the United States, of which about 15 occur in the Southwest. A number of species from closely related genera (Geraea, Helianthella, Heliomeris, Verbesina, and Viguiera) look like sunflowers. Cypselae are usually necessary to identify plants from any of these genera, and there are exceptions to the differences. True sunflowers have sterile ray flowers and 4-angled cypselae bearing 2 readily deciduous awns.

Description of sunflowers (the Helianthus genus): FORM annual to perennial plants about 20-200 cm tall; usually upright, aromatic, and robust; LEAVES simple; opposite and/or alternate; blades narrowly to widely lance-shaped and 3-5-nerved; margins smooth or toothed; FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged individually or in cymes or panicles; phyllaries usually green, herbaceous, and overlapping in several series; receptacles flat to convex, and bearing chaffy scales folded around the bases of the disk flowers; RAY flowers yellow and sterile; DISK flowers yellow or reddish-purplish-brown; perfect and fertile; FRUITS cypselae ob-pyramid-shaped, often 4-angled, and not strongly flattened; pappi consisting of two prominent, readily deciduous, awn-tipped scales, rarely with additional smaller scales; HABITAT throughout the Southwest and elsewhere; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 common sunflower (Helianthus annuus): leaves, receptacles, ray petals, and seeds Couplan (pp. 433-434). #2 Nuttall’s sunflower (Helianthus nuttallii): seeds Ebeling (p. 861). #3 prairie sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris): seeds Couplan (pp. 433-434).

Showy Goldeneye

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Heliomeris genus.

SPECIES: Showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora Nutt. var. multiflora = Viguiera multiflora (Nutt.) S. F. Blake = Gymnolomia multiflora (Nutt.) Rothr.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The seeds are edible. Colonies of showy goldeneye can span entire mountain ranges, and few mountain ranges are without a supply. Ray and disk flowers are golden-yellow, which undoubtedly inspired the name. Flower heads only measure about 10 mm across and become dull brown when the seeds are ready to harvest. Seeds are contained within dry fruits called cypselae. The cypselae are smooth, black, about 3 mm long, and free of sharp protrusions. Late summer to mid autumn is the ideal time to harvest because the cypselae rarely persist much longer. Harvesting is easy, painless, and best done “before the wind.” Separating the chaff from the cypselae is easy, but isolating the actual seeds is difficult. Water separation is ineffective because everything sinks to the bottom, although the seeds are slightly more buoyant. Grinding whole cypselae, followed by toasting, and then winnowing, can yield a fairly pure seed meal. Shells weigh less than seeds and tend to blow away. It’s not a perfect technique. Pure seed meal is delicious, much better than whole cypselae. When eaten whole, fresh off the plants, cypselae taste bland. A fruity accent similar to chamomile may be noticeable. Whole cypselae are chewable, but the shells are bran-like and need to be spit out. Toasting brings out a grain-like flavor and a sawdust-like texture. Crackling is normal when the cypselae are toasted, and burning can occur surprisingly fast. Toasting kills any unwelcome bugs and prepares the cypselae for long-term storage. Overall, seeds of showy goldeneye seem to be a fine resource.

NOTES: Showy goldeneye (H. multiflora) is a common plant, but it’s rarely mentioned in ethnobotanical literature. Ralph Chamberlin provides an early record of the seeds being used as food by the Goshiute Indians of eastern Nevada and western Utah. Apparently, no other Native Americans used these seeds as food, or at least there’s no record of that usage to my knowledge. Along with the Goshiute’s name for the plant, “icamotaqa,” Chamberlin’s record simply states, “Seeds formerly eaten.” Considering how common this plant is, I’m surprised it wasn’t used by more Native Americans. It seems to be a forgotten wild food, lost in the pages of history. Even the quote speaks of it in the past tense, and that was written in 1911. More recent authors often cite Chamberlin without any additional context. My experiences with showy goldeneye seeds were very encouraging. The seeds I gathered were primarily from the upper Salina River in central Utah or the Big Lue Mountains in southeastern Arizona. The flavor definitely suggested food rather than some of the more unappealing aspects of the sunflower family. Foragers considering the Southwest as a place to explore might want to investigate this plant further.

IDENTIFICATION: Currently, 4 species of the Heliomeris genus and 8 of the closely related Viguiera genus are recognized in the United States. All species of both genera are native to the Southwest. In the past, these two genera were treated as one. Differences are seen in the cypselae. Viguiera cypselae have pappi consisting of 2 persistent awn-tipped scales, often with additional smaller scales called squamellae. Heliomeris cypselae do not have pappi.

Description of showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora): FORM upright plant about 20-90 cm tall; LEAVES simple; opposite, or the upper leaves sometimes alternate; stalks very short; blades linear to lance-ovate; margins entire to sparsely toothed, or rolled under; surfaces rough-haired (strigose); FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged in clusters; phyllaries linear, green, persistent, and arranged in 2-3 series; receptacles conic and bearing chaffy scales folded lengthwise around the bases of the disk flowers; RAY flowers yellow and sterile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae ob-pyramid-shaped, weakly 4-angled, black, hairless; pappi absent; HABITAT widespread in mountains, far more abundant than other species of the genus; blooming in summer. NOTES: Two varieties are recognized, multiflora with flat leaves, and nevadensis with rolled leaves.

REFERENCES: Showy goldeneye (Heliomeris multiflora var. multiflora = Viguiera multiflora = Gymnolomia multiflora): seeds Austin (p. 75), Chamberlin (p. 371), and Couplan (p. 455).

Fineleaf Woollywhite

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Hymenopappus genus.

SPECIES: Fineleaf woollywhite or yellow cutleaf (Hymenopappus filifolius Hook.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Fineleaf woollywhite is dangerous. Native Americans of the Four Corners region chewed the roots as gum, added the leaves to cornmeal, or prepared the leaves as a medicinal tea. The plant is otherwise inedible. Fineleaf woollywhite roots have a chewy texture. They make a realistic gum—realistic in texture rather than flavor. The flavor could use a major adjustment with a large hammer! Considering the acrid overtones and lack of sweetness, fineleaf woollywhite gum is unlikely to ever be a favorite. Acquiring the roots is easy, and young roots are preferable to old roots. Young roots have a superior texture. Fineleaf woollywhite leaves are no better than the roots. Tea made from the leaves lacks anything even slightly appealing, although its definition is certainly unique among herbal teas. With a distressing essence of rubber, latex, and resin, fineleaf woollywhite tea has all the inspiration of a newly painted tire factory! It’s a flavor that seems more related to insect repellent than tea, crudely striking the taste buds with all the subtleness of a professional boxer finishing an opponent in the first round! Finding anything appealing about this tea will undoubtedly prove challenging. Fresh, boiled, or dried leaves taste like the tea. Dried leaves store well, but retain their unfortunate flavor almost indefinitely. Consumption of any part for any purpose is definitely not recommended.

NOTES: References to fineleaf woollywhite (H. filifolius) roots being chewed as gum often lead back to Matilda Stevenson’s 1908 ethnobotanical work on the Zuni Indians of western New Mexico. The entire entry simply states, “The root is used as chewing-gum.” References to other parts come primarily from the Hopi and Navajo Indians of northeastern Arizona. My initial contact with this “wild food” was near the Elkheart Cliffs in south-central Utah. Like so many wild foods, it was a real “education in flavor.” Based on that lesson, in combination with subsequent lessons, I believe it’s safe to cross fineleaf woollywhite off the list of potential wild foods—permanently.

IDENTIFICATION: About 10 species of the Hymenopappus genus are currently found in the United States, all of which are native to the Southwest and Great Plains. Fineleaf woollywhite (H. filifolius) is the dominant species throughout arid regions. It’s actually a complex of numerous varieties. The genus name means “membranous pappus,” in reference to the clear scales on the cypselae.

Description of fineleaf woollywhite (Hymenopappus filifolius): FORM perennial plant about 20-90 cm tall; STEMS arising from branching taproots and often covered with woolly, white hairs, especially at the bases; LEAVES clustered basally and fewer alternate along the stems; stalked; blades deeply 1-2 pinnately divided into narrowly linear (filiform) segments; surfaces grayish-green and hairy (tomentose); upper leaves (if present) much reduced; FLOWERS discoid; heads arranged individually or up to 20 in (corymbiform) clusters on long stalks; phyllaries about 6-12, oval, hairy, with nongreen translucent margins, and arranged in 1-3 nearly equal rows; receptacles flat and nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers yellow (or rarely white) and all perfect; FRUITS cypselae narrowly ob-pyramid-shaped, 4-5 sided; surfaces hairy; pappi consisting of 10-20, short, thin, translucent scales; HABITAT widespread on barren terrain and into the mountains; blooming from late spring to autumn. NOTES: A large number of varieties are recognized.

REFERENCES: Fineleaf woollywhite (Hymenopappus filifolius): roots (as chewing gum) Moerman (pp. 129-130) and Stevenson (p. 68); plant (as a medicinal tea) Foster (2002 p. 140); leaves (as a vegetable) Moerman (pp. 129-130).

Sneezeweeds

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Hymenoxys genus.

SPECIES: #1 Cooper’s rubberweed (Hymenoxys cooperi (A. Gray) Cockerell). #2 orange sneezeweed or owl’s claws (Hymenoxys hoopesii (A. Gray) Bierner = Helenium hoopesii A. Gray). #3 Colorado rubberweed or pingue (Hymenoxys richardsonii (Hook.) Cockerell var. floribunda (A. Gray) K. F. Parker = Hymenoxys floribunda (A. Gray) Cockerell = Actinella richardsonii (Hook.) Nutt. var. floribunda A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Sneezeweeds and rubberweeds are poisonous to grazing animals, especially sheep, due to harmful compounds (including hymenoxon and hymenovin) that can lead to a disease called spewing sickness. Symptoms appear similar to those caused by consumption of death camas. Native Americans apparently collected resins from the roots of all species listed above to use as chewing gum, or they simply chewed the roots. Other parts are inedible, and no parts are hereby recommended as food. Foragers seeking these plants will most likely find them in summer or autumn.

Cooper’s rubberweed (H. cooperi) is a fairly common plant with no apparent value as food. Native Americans once chewed the roots as gum, but the plants are otherwise inedible. Roots of this plant taste odd and splinter into irritating fibers when chewed. A starchy accent may be noticeable under the predominantly bitter, resinous, latex-like flavor. The texture is woody rather than gummy. The overall chewing experience is rather unpleasant. Cooper’s rubberweed is best left alone.

Orange sneezeweed (H. hoopesii) has little potential for any purpose. The roots are pleasantly aromatic, but they rarely exude enough resins to make gum, even when situated in moist habitats. Skins are flaky, papery, and brownish-black. Inner portions are light brown, occasionally with some purple highlights. Nothing about these roots is gum-like. Likewise, nothing about orange sneezeweed is orange. Root pieces break apart like normal food when chewed. A few soft fibers persist for a moment to extend the chewing experience, but they lack any gum-like consistency. The flavor is acrid and strongly resinous. It indicates that some food value is present, but it seems to capture all the undesirable characteristics of the sunflower family. It’s not very pleasant, yet not terribly unpleasant. Due to the safety concerns mentioned above, consumption is definitely not recommended.

Colorado rubberweed (H. richardsonii) is a dominant plant of the Canyonlands region and beyond. Obtaining the rubbery latex can be a problem because the plants tend to be dry. Of course, this shouldn’t be a surprise considering the climate. Roots can simply be chewed instead of extracting the latex. Colorado rubberweed produces multi-branched root systems clothed with persistent leaf bases. Masses of smaller roots branching off the main roots make a realistic gum. Main roots are bark-like and “better suited as landscaping mulch than gum.” Smaller roots can simply be washed and chewed. The wiry cores don’t break up and soon form gum. Some pleasant carbohydrates are noticeable and the resin content is low. Simmering these secondary roots yields an excellent broth with some resins floating on the surface. Safety is an issue with Colorado rubberweed, so consumption of any part should be with due caution.

NOTES: The sneezeweed and rubberweed samples for this reference were based primarily on colonies from Lion Mountain, Wire Mesa, and the Markagunt Plateau in Utah. Several species in the Hymenoxys genus have caused extensive loss of livestock (Burrows pp. 177-185). In response to this loss, implicated species have been the subject of intense investigation. Sesquiterpene lactones were determined to be the primary cause of poisoning. Little can be done to remove these compounds. Although animal studies aren’t always applicable to humans, the extent of poisoning caused by these plants should be taken into consideration. Since humans consume much less plant materials than animals, chewing a few roots or resins obtained from the roots is unlikely to cause illness. However, the plants are dangerous and should not be consumed on a regular basis.

IDENTIFICATION: Approximately 20 species of the Hymenoxys genus are found in the United States, all of which are native to the West. The genus name means “sharp membrane,” referring to the clear, awn-tipped scales on the cypselae.

Description of Cooper’s rubberweed (Hymenoxys cooperi): FORM short-lived, perennial plant about 15-90 cm tall arising from taproots and not especially hairy at the bases; STEMS solitary or a few from the bases; LEAVES clustered basally and alternate along the stems, reduced upwards; well-developed blades pinnately divided into several linear segments; surfaces hairless or finely hairy, and often gland-dotted; FLOWERS radiate; heads solitary or 2-35 arranged in (corymbiform) clusters; stalks relatively long; phyllaries arranged in 2 dissimilar rows, those of the outer row thick, green, keeled, and united at the bases; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers 9-15, yellow; DISK flowers many, yellow, and 5-toothed; FRUITS cypselae ob-pyramid-shaped, generally 5-sided; surfaces hairy; pappi scale-like and awn tipped; HABITAT primarily at lower elevations in southern Utah and northern Arizona; blooming in midsummer.

Description of orange sneezeweed (Hymenoxys hoopesii): FORM perennial plant about 2-10 dm tall; stems not winged; LEAVES simple; clustered basally and alternate along the stems; sessile or clasping; blades oblanceolate, 3-30 cm long, and marked with conspicuous white veins running lengthwise; upper leaves reduced in size; margins entire; surfaces hairy or hairless; FLOWERS radiate; heads clustered on long stalks arranged in somewhat flat-topped clusters; phyllaries green, hairy, lanceolate, and overlapping in 2-3 nearly equal series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow or yellowish-orange; pistillate or sterile; DISK flowers yellow and perfect; FRUITS cypselae ob-pyramid-shaped with 4-5 sides and ribs; pappi consisting of 5-9, nongreen, translucent, lanceolate scales; HABITAT mountain meadows; throughout most of the Southwest; blooming June to October.

Description of Colorado rubberweed (Hymenoxys richardsonii): FORM perennial plant about 10-50 cm tall arising from branching taproots; STEMS usually numerous and hairy at the bases; LEAVES mostly alternate, reduced upwards; well-developed blades pinnately divided into several linear segments; surfaces hairy or hairless, often gland-dotted; FLOWERS radiate; heads solitary or 2-25 arranged in (corymbiform) clusters; stalks relatively short; phyllaries arranged in 2 dissimilar rows, those of the outer row green, hairy, keeled, and united at the bases; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers 7-12, yellow; DISK flowers many, yellow, and 5-toothed; FRUITS cypselae ob-pyramid-shaped, generally 5-sided; surfaces hairy; pappi scale-like and awn-tipped; HABITAT abundant from mid to upper elevations throughout the Canyonlands and surrounding areas, especially in pinyon-juniper communities; blooming all summer.

REFERENCES: #1 Cooper’s rubberweed (Hymenoxys cooperi): roots (gum) Couplan (p. 410, cited as Actinella cooperi). #2 orange sneezeweed (Hymenoxys hoopesii = Helenium hoopesii): roots (gum) Underhill (p. 61). #3 Colorado rubberweed (Hymenoxys richardsonii var. floribunda = Hymenoxys floribunda): roots (gum) Couplan (p. 436).

Lettuces

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Lactuca genus.

SPECIES: #1 Canadian lettuce (Lactuca canadensis L.). #2 Louisiana, biennial, or western lettuce (Lactuca ludoviciana (Nutt.) Riddell). #3 Russian, blue, or chicory lettuce (Lactuca pulchella (Pursh) DC. = Lactuca tatarica (L.) C. A. Mey. var. pulchella (Pursh) Breitung = Lactuca oblongifolia Nutt. = Mulgedium oblongifolium (Nutt.) Reveal = Mulgedium pulchellum (Pursh) G. Don). #4 prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola L. = Lactuca scariola L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Leaves of all species listed above can be eaten raw or cooked. In addition, a gummy latex that exudes from the cut roots of blue lettuce (L. pulchella) and prickly lettuce (L. serriola) can be chewed as gum. The southwestern climate is unfavorable to most species, except for prickly lettuce (L. serriola), which thrives in the region.

Canadian lettuce (L. canadensis) is found primarily in the eastern United States and Canada. It’s a native, yellow-flowered species that typically blooms from June to September. Southwestern foragers may find it in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico, but it’s not of much value in the Southwest due to its scarcity.

Louisiana lettuce (L. ludoviciana) is found primarily in the central United States, but it’s also scattered in the southwestern mountains. It’s a prickly, native, yellow-flowered species that blooms from June to September. Leaves of this species were eaten by the Goshiute Indians of western Utah and eastern Nevada. Southwestern foragers may find Louisiana lettuce in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico, Sierra Ancha Mountains of Arizona, Deep Creek Mountains of Utah, or similar habitats, but it’s not of much value in the Southwest due to its scarcity.

Blue lettuce (L. pulchella) is a native, blue-flowered species found throughout western North America. It’s essentially the same species as Russian lettuce (L. tatarica) native to Asia and Europe. Some authorities allege that blue lettuce differs by having more leaves and by having smooth rather than spiny leaf margins. As usual, these “differences” are subject to failure. Blue lettuce is sometimes placed in the Mulgedium genus because unlike all other southwestern species it’s a perennial with creeping root systems. Other species are annuals or biennials. Grazing animals readily consume blue lettuce, so competition can be expected. Leaves of blue lettuce are normally grass-like and free of prickles, and they’re often lobed. Fresh leaves taste very similar to dark-green lettuces available in grocery stores combined with a bitter overtone. Leaves of a closely related species called grassleaf lettuce (L. graminifolia) taste virtually identical. Boiling dissipates most of the bitterness in the leaves of both species, resulting in fine potherbs. Leaf texture is easily chewable, fresh or cooked. Gathering a supply of blue lettuce leaves is reasonably easy. Flowering plants provide a reference point for identifying younger plants still in the rosette stage. Overall, blue lettuce is a good plant to remember.

Prickly lettuce (L. serriola) is a yellow-flowered species native to Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. It’s considered invasive in North America, including the southwestern United States. Prickly lettuce comes in two varieties, one with leaf lobes and the other without leaf lobes. Both are equally edible. As the name indicates, the leaves are prickly. Boiling effectively softens the margins, but less effectively improves the flavor. Leaves of prickly lettuce taste strongly bitter and weakly lettuce-like. Boiling them alone and discarding the cooking water seems to be the best option. Aversions to the initial bite would be understandable, but the boiled leaves are harmless. Younger leaves have softer prickles than older leaves. Cut roots exude milky latex, like white blood working to heal a wound. Collecting this latex to use as chewing gum is easy, but may take a while. Upon exposure to air, the latex dries to a gum-like consistency that’s ready-to-chew. It needs to be fully dry. At which point, the solid latex acquires a dull white color similar to its original color. Lettuce gum tastes awful. It’s somewhat like a combination of glue, paint, bitterness, and earth-flavored flour. If collected from the stems, it’ll have a green salad accent. It’s better after the flavor is gone and only the gummy part remains. A large piece will last several hours, maybe even days. Thankfully, the flavor is much less enduring! Drying the leaves is easy. They dry fast, turn brittle, and store well for later use. Overall, prickly lettuce is a good resource, throughout most of the growing season.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lactuca genus is currently represented by 12 species in the United States. Only 3 are well established in the Southwest. Wild lettuces have milky sap, flower heads consisting entirely of ray flowers, strongly flattened cypselae with beaks, and pappi of simple hairs. Sowthistles can look similar, but they lack beaks.

Description of Canadian lettuce (Lactuca canadensis): FORM annual or biennial native plant about 5-22 dm tall with milky sap; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades entire or deeply cut into broad lobes; margins not prickly; FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged in panicles; involucres cylindrical, about 10-14 mm high, and often wider toward the bases; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, all perfect; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae about 4-7 mm long; bodies oval, strongly flattened, 2-4 mm long, and 1-nerved on each face; beaks shorter than the bodes, 1-3 mm long; pappi consisting of simple hair-like bristles; HABITAT meadows and woodlands; primarily in the eastern United States; uncommon in arid regions; blooming June to October.

Description of Louisiana lettuce (Lactuca ludoviciana): FORM biennial or perennial native plant about 4-15 dm tall with milky sap; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades normally deeply cut into broad lobes; margins weakly prickly; FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged in panicles; involucres cylindrical, about 12-20 mm high, and often wider toward the bases; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, all perfect; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae about 6-12 mm long; bodies oval, strongly flattened, 3-6 mm long, and 1-nerved on each face; beaks equaling the bodes; pappi consisting of simple hair-like bristles; HABITAT prairies and woodlands; primarily in the central United States; uncommon in arid regions; blooming June to September.

Description of blue lettuce (Lactuca pulchella): FORM perennial plant about 2-11 dm tall with milky sap; spreading from creeping rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear to broad, with or without lobes; margins not prickly; surfaces hairless and often dusty; FLOWERS ligulate; heads numerous and arranged in panicles; involucres cylindrical, about 14-20 mm tall, and often wider toward the bases; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers blue, all perfect; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae about 4-8 mm long; bodies oval, strongly flattened; each face with several conspicuous ridge-like nerves; beaks equaling or shorter than the bodies; pappi consisting of simple, white, hair-like bristles; HABITAT plants found throughout the West, especially along mountain streams; blooming June to September. NOTES: Grassleaf lettuce (L. graminifolia var. arizonica) is a common species that looks very similar to blue lettuce except for having only 1 nerve on the cypsela faces and leaves that are rarely lobed, hence more grass-like. Willowleaf lettuce (L. saligna) is a rare species that also looks similar to blue lettuce except for having yellow flowers and cypsela beaks that are longer than the bodies.

Description of prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola): FORM annual or biennial nonnative plant about 4-16 dm tall with milky sap; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades with or without broad lobes; margins very prickly; FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged in panicles; involucres cylindrical, about 10-15 mm tall, and often wider toward the bases; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, all perfect; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae about 6-12 mm long; bodies oval, strongly flattened; each face with several conspicuous ridge-like nerves; beaks thread-like and longer than the bodies; pappi consisting of simple hair-like bristles; HABITAT fields, washes, roadsides, and disturbed areas over a wide range of elevations throughout the Southwest and elsewhere; blooming March to October.

REFERENCES: #1 Canadian lettuce (Lactuca canadensis): leaves Ebeling (p. 861) and Moerman (p. 135). #2 Louisiana lettuce (Lactuca ludoviciana): leaves Chamberlin (p. 373) and Ebeling (p. 861). #3 blue lettuce (Lactuca pulchella): gummy substance from roots (used as gum) Moerman (p. 135); leaves Ebeling (p. 861). #4 prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola = L. scariola): gummy substance from roots (used as gum) Olsen (p. 102); leaves Ebeling (p. 861), Olsen (p. 102), and Tilford (p. 116).

California Goldfields

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Lasthenia genus.

SPECIES: California goldfields (Lasthenia californica DC. ex Lindl. ssp. californica = Lasthenia chrysostoma (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Greene = Baeria chrysostoma Fisch. & C. A. Mey.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Cypselae (dry seed-like fruits) of California goldfields were gathered, ground into flour, and eaten by the Cahuilla Indians of southern California. Actual seeds are packaged inside the cypselae. Isolating the actual seeds is impractical and unnecessary. Whole cypselae, minus the weakly attached scales, can simply be ground into flour. Gathering a supply requires good timing because the cypselae disperse soon after maturing, which is anytime from April to August, but typically in late spring. Not all the plants of a colony mature at exactly the same time. Plants in sunlight often mature sooner than plants in shade. Plants are dry at the ideal gathering time and petals often fade from yellow to white. Plants gathered too early may need to be dried. Gathering early yields more cypselae, but gathering at the ideal time simplifies processing and ensures that the cypselae will be fully developed. California goldfield cypselae are delicate, mild-flavored, and bran-like. They taste like sunflower seeds with a mild accent. Considering the relative ease of gathering, ease of processing, and availability, California goldfield cypselae are a decent wild food.

NOTES: Cypselae of a related species called yellowray goldfields (Lasthenia glabrata Lindl.) were also gathered, ground into flour, and eaten by the Cahuilla Indians of southern California (Barrows p. 65). The Cahuilla name for both species is “aklakul.” My experiences with California goldfields (L. californica) were encouraging. This plant seems to be a good resource, and the closely related yellowray goldfields is probably even better since its cypselae have no scales, awns, bristles, or other pappi. The only bad news about goldfield cypselae is gathering enough. Although gathering them is easy, gathering substantial amounts will take a while. The vernacular name goldfields is no accident. In spring, these plants can cover entire fields in a blanket of gold.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lasthenia genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States. Only the following species is found east of California.

Description of California goldfields (Lasthenia californica): FORM small, annual plant about 5-40 cm tall; LEAVES simple; opposite; cauline; blades linear to oblanceolate, 1-7 cm long; margins entire; surfaces hairy; FLOWERS radiate; involucres cup-shaped; phyllaries free, hairy, and usually arranged in 1 row; receptacles cone-shaped and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers yellow; style tips and anther tips triangular; FRUITS cypselae linear, 1-3 mm long; pappi consisting of 1-7 awns or awn-tipped scales; HABITAT California to New Mexico below 1,500 meters (about 4,500 feet) elevation; blooming February to June. NOTES: Description is based on the californica subspecies. Other subspecies are perennials found primarily in California.

REFERENCES: California goldfields (Lasthenia californica): seeds Bean (p. 46) and Moerman (p. 136).

White Tidytips

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Layia genus.

SPECIES: White tidytips or layia (Layia glandulosa (Hook.) Hook. & Arn.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Native Americans of southern California gathered white tidytip seeds to make porridge. The seeds are small, tedious to gather, and difficult to process. Even the largest plants produce small seeds. Consuming unprocessed cypselae would be unwise due to the awn-like chaff. White tidytips grow throughout the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, where the seeds mature primarily from April to September.

NOTES: Although white tidytips are common, they never seem to form populations dense enough to justify harvesting, or I’ve never found such a population. I’ve seen them in many places, including the Cima Dome in the East Mojave National Scenic Area. Any plant that can grow there shouldn’t have any trouble growing anywhere in the Mojave or Sonoran desert. Even if a suitable colony can be found, recognizing these plants when the seeds are ready is difficult because they blend in with the landscape. Foragers can overcome this obstacle by observing a colony in bloom and returning to the same location later. It’s wise to note any similar-looking plants during the initial visit. On the return visit, the combination of overall form, dry leaves, hairs, and cypselae can be used to confirm the identity.

IDENTIFICATION: The Layia genus is represented by about 15 species in the United States, all but 2 of which are endemic to California. Only white tidytips (L. glandulosa) is likely to be encountered outside of California.

Description of white tidytips (Layia glandulosa): FORM annual plant about 8-40 cm tall and densely covered with rough, sticky hairs; STEMS one to many; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear to lanceolate; lower leaves often with several irregular, shallow, or deep lobes; upper leaves often with smooth margins; FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged terminally; involucres cup-shaped; phyllaries green, hairy, arranged in 1 row, and enfolding the ray cypselae; receptacles flat to convex and chaffy; RAY flowers pistillate, fertile; the rays white, 3-21 mm long, prominently 3-lobed, and often not much longer than wide; DISK flowers perfect, fertile, and yellow; FRUITS cypselae of disk flowers narrowly club- or pyramid-shaped, black, and hairy; pappi consisting of 8-14 glistening white awn-like scales that are densely plumose at the bases; pappi of ray flowers absent; HABITAT California to western New Mexico and throughout the southern Great Basin, common at low to mid elevations; blooming February to July.

REFERENCES: White tidytips (Layia glandulosa): seeds Ebeling (pp. 329 and 394) and Moerman (p. 136).

Oxeye Daisy

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Leucanthemum genus.

SPECIES: Oxeye daisy or moon penny (Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. = Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots, leaves, and flowers of oxeye daisy are edible fresh or cooked. Fresh leaves taste mild, resinous, and somewhat fruity. They’re excellent in salads. Fresh flowers taste equally appealing, but the bracts may have a scratchy texture. Stems can be chewed for nourishment, but they’re too fibrous for most purposes. They taste similar to the leaves, minus the fruity accent. Simmering the leaves produces a deep green broth suitable for soups or stews. Leaves can safely be added directly to the broth. No change of cooking water is necessary. Tea made from fresh flowers is light yellow. It has a distinctive character not found in the leaves. In Asia, related species are used to make chrysanthemum tea or cultivated as leafy vegetables, both of which are successful on the commercial market. Oxeye daisy produces small leaves. Acquiring enough for a meal can take a while, but the reward is worth the effort. Oxeye daisy is abundant throughout most of the United States. However, in the Southwest, it’s rather scarce and limited primarily to temperate zones, such as the Mogollon Rim of Arizona.

NOTES: Oxeye daisy is native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia. It’s considered invasive in North America and elsewhere. Several states have taken measures to stop it from spreading any further. It’s accused of diminishing the forage value of rangelands, tainting the flavor of milk, spreading diseases to agricultural crops, and reducing biodiversity. All of which have an element of truth, but fail to consider its potential to serve as food. Oxeye daisy was formerly placed in the Chrysanthemum genus, along with another species called crown daisy (Glebionis coronarium). Crown daisy is cultivated as a leafy vegetable in Asia along with another species called garden mum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) that’s used to make chrysanthemum tea. This tea is very popular in China, especially Tongxiang City, also known as “the city of chrysanthemums,” where several tons of the flowers are harvested annually to supply the market. Oxeye daisy can be used like these plants and may likewise have potential for cultivation. However, in the United States, it’s more likely to be the subject of extermination rather than cultivation due to its relationship with the cattle industry. Aside from causing allergies in susceptible individuals and containing trace amounts of natural insecticides called pyrethrins (primarily in the seeds), oxeye daisy appears to be safe. Cooking, exposure to light, or exposure to air readily destroys these compounds (Nelson 2001 p. 79). My experiences with oxeye daisy, which were primarily in the Northeast rather than the Southwest, were encouraging. This plant seems to have a lot of potential.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 3 species of the Leucanthemum genus and 1 hybrid are currently recognized in the United States. Only oxeye daisy (L. vulgare) is found in the Southwest. The others are poorly established anywhere in the United States.

Description of oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare): FORM perennial plant about 2-7 dm tall spreading from rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades spoon-shaped or oblanceolate in outline; margins pinnately lobed or toothed; FLOWERS radiate; heads solitary on long stalks terminating the stems; phyllaries overlapping in 2-4 series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers white, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae club-shaped with about 6-10 prominent ribs; pappi absent; HABITAT throughout the United States, but rare in the Southwest; blooming primarily in summer.

REFERENCES: Oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare): roots Couplan (p. 440); leaves Berdanier (p. 24), Couplan (p. 440), Peterson (p. 58), Tilford (p. 106), and Zachos (pp. 60-61); flowers Berdanier (p. 24), Couplan (p. 440), and Zachos (pp. 60-61).  

Grand Rushpink and Desert Gum

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Lygodesmia genus.

SPECIES: #1 grand rushpink or large-flower skeletonplant (Lygodesmia grandiflora (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray). #2 desert gum or rush skeletonplant (Lygodesmia juncea (Pursh) D. Don ex Hook.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Leaves of grand rushpink can be used as potherbs and milky latex exuding from the various parts of desert gum can be used as chewing gum.

Leaves of grand rushpink (L. grandiflora) are tender and palatable, fresh or cooked. Usage reports indicate that they were always cooked. Grand rushpink makes a fine potherb with a lettuce-like flavor. Leaves can be added directly to soups as a primary ingredient. No change of cooking water is necessary. Simmering the leaves yields a true green broth of high food value. The flowers and flower buds (which are not reported to be edible) have a terrific sweetness, but they’re hairy inside, which reduces their appeal. Milky sap permeating these plants (which is also not reported to be edible) becomes sticky upon drying. Once dry, it can be formed into gum. Grand rushpink gum has a lettuce-like flavor that could be a real disappointment for anybody expecting something fruity and laden with excessive amounts of sugar. Unaccustomed foragers can be sure that gums derived from wild plants taste a lot different than gums sold in grocery stores. Grand rushpink inhabits sand dunes, especially in the Canyonlands of southeastern Utah. It typically blooms from May to July. Grand rushpink is a good plant to know, but it’s rather small and highly unlikely to provide adequate calories for long-term survival situations.

Desert gum (L. juncea) is found primarily in the central United States. It was not located during the fieldwork conducted for this reference, but gum made from the latex is likely to be similar to that of grand rushpink described above. Southwestern foragers will most likely find desert gum on the high plains of northern New Mexico. It blooms from June to September. As with grand rushpink, desert gum is a good plant to know, but it’s highly unlikely to provide adequate calories for long-term survival situations.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lygodesmia genus is currently represented by about 10 species in the United States, most of which are found in the Southwest and Great Basin. Several rare species occur in isolated locations. Grand rushpink is considered a weed.

Description of grand rushpink (Lygodesmia grandiflora): FORM small plant about 5-35 cm tall with milky latex; emerging from a taproot and producing rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear or the upper ones scale-like; margins entire; surfaces often dusty; FLOWERS ligulate; heads terminal; involucres 14-25 mm tall, cylindrical, with 5-12 slender primary bracts (phyllaries) bearing appendages and a secondary row of greatly reduced outer bractlets (calyculi); receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers 5-12, showy, and perfect; the rays pink, purple, or white, about 15-35 mm long, and 5-lobed; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae cylindrical, ribbed, and hairless; beaks absent; pappi consisting of numerous, persistent, hair-like bristles about 10-18 mm long; HABITAT sandy soils at low to mid elevations; northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and northward to Wyoming; blooming in late spring.

Description of desert gum (Lygodesmia juncea): FORM bushy, perennial plant about 10-45 cm tall with milky latex; emerging from taproots and producing rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades linear or the upper ones scale-like; margins entire; surfaces often dusty; FLOWERS ligulate; heads terminal; involucres 10-16 mm tall, cylindrical, with 5-7 slender bracts (phyllaries) lacking appendages and a secondary row of greatly reduced outer bractlets (calyculi); receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers 5-7, showy, and perfect; the rays pink or purple, about 15-25 mm long, and 5-lobed; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae cylindrical, weakly ribbed, and hairless; beaks absent; pappi consisting of numerous, persistent, hair-like bristles about 6-9 mm long; HABITAT sandy soils; primarily of the Great Plains; blooming from late spring to early autumn.

REFERENCES: #1 grand rushpink (Lygodesmia grandiflora): leaves Couplan (p. 441) and Moerman (p. 148). #2 desert gum (Lygodesmia juncea): sap (dried and chewed like gum) Couplan (p. 441) and Moerman (p. 148).

Mountain Tarweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Madia genus.

SPECIES: Mountain tarweed (Madia glomerata Hook.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Seeds of mountain tarweed and a few other species of the Madia genus are reported to be edible. None of the species were located during the fieldwork conducted for this reference.

NOTES: Tarweeds are prolific seed producers. Native Americans of California relied on seeds gathered from slender tarweed (Madia gracilis), elegant tarweed (M. elegans), and coast tarweed (M. sativa) for making porridge (Couplan pp. 441-442 and Moerman pp. 149-150). The genus name comes from “madi,” a Chilean name for coast tarweed, which has been cultivated as a source of seeds in South America since pre-Columbian times and is still cultivated today (Small 2014 pp. 245-248). Oil derived from the seeds of coast tarweed has been described as clear, yellowish-brown, mild, nutty, pleasantly aromatic, and comparable to olive oil. Oil derived from other species may have similar characteristics. Traces of harmful compounds may be present in tarweed seeds, but the extensive use of these seeds as food among native people in North and South America suggests they are harmless. Only mountain tarweed (M. glomerata) grows in the Southwest and Rocky Mountains. This species has been described as ill-scented, and may be of lower quality than cultivated species.

IDENTIFICATION: About 20 species of the Madia genus are found in the United States, most of which are found in California, Oregon, and Washington. Only mountain tarweed (M. glomerata) is likely to be found in the Southwest.

Description of mountain tarweed (Madia glomerata): FORM upright, strongly tar-scented, annual plant about 10-60 cm tall densely covered with sticky hairs; LEAVES simple; opposite, or the upper ones alternate; blades linear, about 2-8 cm long; margins entire; surfaces rough-haired; FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged in dense terminal clusters (glomerate) or occasionally in more open clusters; involucres football-shaped, 5-11 mm tall; phyllaries free, arranged in 1 row, and enclosing the ray cypselae; receptacles flat to convex, chaffy; RAY flowers 0-4, yellow, tiny, pistillate, and fertile; the petals about 1-3 mm long; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae 4-6 mm long, narrow, black, angled, and 5-nerved; surfaces hairless; pappi absent; HABITAT dry, open, scattered mountain locations throughout the West; blooming July to September.

REFERENCES: Mountain tarweed (Madia glomerata): seeds Blankenship (p. 15), Couplan (pp. 441-442), Moerman (p. 150), Vizgirdas (p. 204), and others.

Desert Dandelions

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Malacothrix genus.

SPECIES: California desert dandelion (Malacothrix californica DC.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Native Americans living in the Sonoran and Mojave deserts utilized the seeds as food. Other parts and other species, including the virtually identical smooth desert dandelion (M. glabrata), are not reported to be edible. Seeds of California desert dandelion are contained within dry fruits called cypselae. Harvesting the cypselae is easy. However, they readily disperse in the wind, so gathering them “before the wind” is recommended. Wind has a cyclical nature, so “before the wind” simply means before strong winds return. Outdoor types understand this instinctively. Separating the cypselae from the chaff is reasonably easy, but isolating the actual seeds is considerably more difficult. The fluffy tops (pappi) readily detach, leaving just the bodies. These bodies are ridged lengthwise and free of sharp awns, barbs, and bristles. Raw cypselae have a decent flavor and a gummy texture. It’s not like sunflower seeds, but it definitely indicates food value. Toasted cypselae are delicious. The flavor is free of harsh accents and the texture is brittle rather than bran-like. This wild food is suitable for stone grinding. California desert dandelion blooms early, anytime from February to May. Cypselae are available from April to July. Overall, California desert dandelion cypselae are a decent wild food.

Roots and leaves of California desert dandelion are not reported to be edible, but they were assessed during the fieldwork conducted for this reference. The roots tasted mild, but they had a tough, fibrous texture. The leaves also tasted mild, somewhat like romaine lettuce combined with a bitter overtone. All the herbaceous parts became mushy when boiled and formed a green broth. Some plants tasted better than others, but all of them were roughly equivalent to true dandelions (of the Taraxacum genus). Few plants of southern California are as abundant as California desert dandelion.

NOTES: California desert dandelion was among the first wild plants I tried. Since everybody makes mistakes, I’ll admit I ate the wrong parts (roots and leaves) the first time I tried this wild plant. This mistake exemplifies how names can be misleading and how too much information can be a problem. True dandelions (of the Taraxacum genus) have edible roots and leaves, but the seeds are generally not eaten. In California desert dandelions, only the seeds are considered edible. My written notes correctly stated that, but the notes written in my mind were for true dandelions. Had I not known that “dandelions” are edible, I probably would’ve checked my notes and gathered the right part the first time. On the other hand, had I not made the mistake, I never would have discovered the flavor of California desert dandelion roots and leaves. Why these parts eluded the ethnobotanical record is uncertain, but it’s not an issue with flavor. These parts don’t taste particularly good, but they should pass as palatable. Without a reference to edibility, I certainly wouldn’t recommend eating the roots and leaves, but they are worth further investigation. Other species of the Malacothrix genus are also not reported to be edible, which could indicate a safety issue. A return visit to Shavers Valley east of the Mecca Hills in southern California provided ample opportunity to try the seeds.

IDENTIFICATION: The Malacothrix genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States, most of which occur in California. The genus is closely related to true dandelions (Taraxacum genus). Differences are seen in the cypselae. Those of Taraxacum species have prominent beaks, while those of Malacothrix species lack beaks. The thread-like leaves of desert dandelion (M. californica) and closely related species are distinctive.

Description of California desert dandelion (Malacothrix californica): FORM stemless plant about 4-60 cm tall with milky sap; LEAVES simple; clustered basally; bases hairy; blades deeply pinnately divided into thread-like segments; FLOWERS all ligulate and perfect; heads solitary at the ends of long leafless stalks emerging from ground level; phyllaries linear and overlapping in several series; receptacles shallowly convex and nonchaffy; RAY flowers pale to intense yellow, each with 5 teeth; DISK flowers none; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical and cut off at the tops, not compressed, and not beaked; surfaces with 10-15 ribs, of which 5 are more prominent; pappi consisting of 2-5 persistent awn-like bristles and numerous hair-like bristles that are united at the bases; HABITAT deserts of southern California to southern Nevada, Utah, and western Arizona, especially in sandy areas; blooming late winter to late spring. NOTES: A closely related species called smooth desert dandelion (M. glabrata) differs by having leafy stems and fewer flower heads terminating the stems.

REFERENCES: California desert dandelion (Malacothrix californica): seeds Couplan (p. 442), Ebeling (p. 329), Moerman (p. 152), and Sparkman (p. 228).

Nodding Silverpuff

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Microseris genus.

SPECIES: Nodding silverpuff (Microseris nutans (Hook.) Sch. Bip.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of nodding silverpuff are edible fresh or cooked. Fresh roots have a crisp, tender, delicate texture. They cook fast, usually within minutes. Any cooking method yields good results. Boiled roots taste similar to potatoes, except for an earthy accent and some bitterness imparted by the milky latex. Fire-baked roots are especially satisfying. Nodding silverpuff roots are creamy white with light brown skins and average 3-15 mm thick by 4-20 cm long. They’re a top-quality wild food that can be gathered anytime. However gathering is best done when the plants first appear in spring. The leaves, which are not reported to be edible, taste similar to dandelion leaves with a slightly bitter, salty, marshy accent. No harsh flavors or textures compromise the leaves. Overall, nodding silverpuff is a good wild food, but it’s not very common.

NOTES: A related species called starpoints (Microseris lindleyi (DC.) A. Gray = Microseris linearifolia (Nutt.) Sch. Bip. = Uropappus lindleyi (DC.) Nutt.), which is not reported to be edible, was also assessed for this reference. Starpoints is a common plant of southern Arizona and New Mexico growing in association with grasses around 1,000 meters elevation. Starpoint leaves taste nearly identical to dark-green lettuce available in grocery stores. Very few wild foods taste so mild. Assuming the leaves are safe—which can never be assumed—they’re excellent in salads and equally excellent as potherbs. The texture is easily chewable. Gathering a supply is reasonably easy. Based on the flavor and the ease of gathering, starpoint leaves would seem to be a high-quality wild food, but confirmation of their edibility was not possible, so consumption is not recommended.

IDENTIFICATION: The Microseris genus is represented by approximately 15 species in the United States, of which only 2 are found east of California. Note that scapes (bare flower stalks arising from ground level) are basically stems without leaves. “Scape-like” or “scapiform” plants have a few leaves on the stems. These stems otherwise look like long flower stalks. “Scapose” plants have completely leafless flower stalks and are said to be stemless. Applications of these terms are often vague and conflicted. The following plants can be scapiform or scapose, depending on how well developed the individual plants are. “Micro” means small, and “seris” means resembling lettuce.

Description of starpoints (Microseris lindleyi): FORM scape-like annual plant about 10-60 cm tall with milky sap; emerging from taproots; LEAVES simple; clustered basally or a few scattered along the lower stems; blades narrow, linear; margins entire or cut into a few irregular teeth; surfaces hairless or finely hairy; FLOWERS all ligulate and perfect; heads usually solitary and upright on long stalks; phyllaries arranged in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical; bodies ridged; beaks absent; pappi consisting of 5 silvery scales, each bearing 1 awn arising from a notch at the tip; HABITAT low to mid elevations; central Arizona to central New Mexico; blooming in late winter or spring.

Description of nodding silverpuff (Microseris nutans): FORM scape-like perennial plant about 10-60 cm tall with milky sap; emerging from thick, fleshy roots; LEAVES simple; clustered basally or a few along the lower stems in well-developed plants; blades narrow; margins entire or cut into irregular teeth (laciniate); surfaces hairless or sparsely scurfy; FLOWERS all ligulate and perfect; heads solitary or a few on long stalks, often nodding in bud; phyllaries arranged in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical; bodies ridged; beaks absent; pappi consisting of 15-20 narrow white scales, each bearing a plumose awn arising from a notch at the tip; HABITAT throughout the Great Basin, often in moist canyons; blooming in spring and summer.

REFERENCES: Nodding silverpuff (Microseris nutans): roots Blankenship (p. 16), Couplan (p. 443), and Yanovski (p. 62).

Chinchweeds

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Pectis genus.

SPECIES: #1 lemon or lemon-scented chinchweed (Pectis angustifolia Torr.). #2 bristly chinchweed (Pectis papposa Harv. & A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Leaves of both species listed above can be used as seasonings, served as condiments, added to salads, or steeped into tea. Flowers can be used as seasonings, and the seeds of bristly chinchweed (P. papposa) can be made into porridge.

Bristly chinchweed (P. papposa) is a small, aromatic, resinous plant that grows in vast colonies across the Southwest, often among creosote shrubs. Fresh plants have an aroma that could be described as a combination of tropical fruit and latex paint. The flavor is better than the aroma since it captures the fruity essence while excluding the paint-like overtone. The flavor also has a “plant-like” character typical of the sunflower family. Leaves and flowers of bristly chinchweed can be used as seasonings for a variety of items including meat, vegetables, corn bread, porridge, or any kind of baked goods. They also make an excellent tea. Bristly chinchweed tea has a deep golden-yellow-green color. The aroma is intriguing and the flavor is appealing. Bristly chinchweed flowers have no fear of the desert sun. They close at night and open at midday, and they do this from summer to autumn, the hottest time of the year.

NOTES: Chinchweeds were utilized as tea, seasonings, condiments, or side dishes by the Zuni, Hopi, Acoma, Laguna, and Havasupai Indians. This usage pattern by only a few tribes suggests that chinchweeds are unsafe in meal-size amounts, or that some other factor prevents them from being utilized as staple foods. Since abundance is not an issue, and gathering the plants is fairly easy, and the flavor is palatable, harmful compounds become a more likely factor that prevented chinchweeds from being used more extensively, but these plants are not reported to be harmful, which brings us back to the original question: Why were chinchweeds not utilized more extensively? I gathered the leaves and flowers of bristly chinchweed (P. papposa) primarily in the San Simon Valley of southeastern Arizona. Seeds were not ready at the time, so I could only document the other parts. I never found lemon-scented chinchweed (P. angustifolia), but if the flavor, texture, and aroma are as “different” as the appearance, then there are no differences in these aspects. In other words, these species look very similar, and other aspects may also be similar. These species are definitely worth trying, and I’d recommend using them only as the Native Americans did.

IDENTIFICATION: The Pectis genus is represented by 10-15 species in the United States, most of which occur in the Southwest. Chinchweeds are relatively small plants dotted with conspicuous resin glands. Very few genera in the sunflower family look similar. The following species are virtually identical, except for the cypselae.

Description of lemon chinchweed (Pectis angustifolia): FORM low-lying, strong-scented, annual plant about 4-30 cm tall; LEAVES simple; opposite; cauline; sessile; bases bristly; blades linear; surfaces gland-dotted; FLOWERS radiate; heads solitary or clustered at the branch tips; phyllaries free, gland-dotted, and arranged in 1 series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical and ribbed; pappi consisting of short scales forming crowns; HABITAT deserts and open areas throughout most of the southwestern United States; blooming in summer.

Description of bristly chinchweed (Pectis papposa): FORM low-lying, strong-scented, annual plant about 4-30 cm tall; LEAVES simple; opposite; cauline; sessile; bases bristly; blades linear; surfaces gland-dotted; FLOWERS radiate; heads solitary or clustered at the branch tips; phyllaries free, gland-dotted, and arranged in 1 series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical and ribbed; pappi consisting of numerous plumose bristles; HABITAT deserts and open areas throughout most of the southwestern United States; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 lemon chinchweed (Pectis angustifolia): plant (as a seasoning and a condiment) Moerman (p. 173); leaves (as a vegetable) Hodgson (pp. 88-89). #2 bristly chinchweed (Pectis papposa): plant (as a condiment and a green vegetable) Hodgson (pp. 88-89); leaves (as a seasoning) Hodgson (pp. 88-89); flower heads (as a seasoning) Hodgson (pp. 88-89) and Stevenson (p. 69); seeds (as porridge) Moerman (p. 173).

Arrowweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Pluchea genus.

SPECIES: Arrowweed, marsh fleabane, or silky camphorweed (Pluchea sericea (Nutt.) Coville).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of young arrowweed plants are edible. Whether or not Native Americans considered the rhizomes and subterranean stem bases part of the “roots” is uncertain. The following article is based on the rhizomes and stem bases, but is not meant to imply that these parts are safe to eat. Only the roots are reported to be edible.

New arrowweed plants can establish by seeds or by branching off existing rhizomes. Those branching off rhizomes are subterranean until reaching the surface, which is commonly 10-30 cm away. Underground portions, meaning the stem bases, of these new plants look very similar to the rhizomes and come in various shades of dull colors that seem to match the surrounding environment. Ideally, these stem bases have a soft, juicy, celery-like texture and a mild flavor. Of course, circumstances aren’t always ideal. Higher-quality stem bases make an excellent vegetable, raw or cooked. Lower-quality stem bases can be tougher than rope and cursed with irritating fibers. As new arrowweeds grow taller, the stem bases often remain manageable. Stem bases of adolescent plants, and to a lesser extent those of mature plants, commonly consist of a fleshy portion surrounding a tough core. Fleshy portions are reinforced with stringy fibers that impart a chewy, gum-like texture. The tough cores contain fibers that are more splinter-like than gum-like. Since cooking has almost no effect upon the fibers, only the fleshy portions are suitable for consumption. Peeling the skins is unnecessary and results in loss of the fleshy portions. A quick scrape to remove any scaly leaves along with a good rinse should suffice. Fleshy portions peel off the tough cores without much resistance. Separating the two shouldn’t be too troublesome. Fleshy portions taste earthy, salty, and mildly resinous. A weak pine-like or licorice-like accent may also be present. It’s a reasonably good flavor, but it lacks starch value, or at least the flavor doesn’t suggest much starch value. Simmering the rhizomes or stem bases yields a yellowish broth of similar flavor. Arrowweed is abundant along watercourses. Spring is the best time to harvest this resource, but it can be harvested any time of the year. Actual roots of young plants have most of the characteristics already mentioned for the rhizomes and stem bases. Earthy, salty, and mildly resinous seems to best describe the flavor. Overall, the various underground parts of arrowweeds seem like fairly good resources.

NOTES: Arrowweed is a versatile plant that Native Americans once used for making arrow shafts, baskets, and containers. They also used it for building fences and various types of shelters. Very few books mention any food uses for arrowweed. “Temalpakh (From the Earth): Cahuilla Indian Knowledge and Usage of Plants” written by John Bean and Katherine Saubel is one of those few books. The authors note that the Cahuilla Indians called this plant “hangal” and gathered the roots of young plants any time of the year. Since arrowweed is so common along watercourses throughout the Southwest, it’s unusual that other tribes didn’t consume the roots. Of course, since these “plants” tend to be shrubs, acquiring the roots can be difficult. The first arrowweed root I gathered was nearly impossible to dig up due to the hard soil. The entire root was about 12 cm long by 3 mm thick and tougher than wire. I expended far more energy to acquire the root than what it provided in return, and that’s a scenario you want to avoid in a survival situation. After all the work, gnawing on the root provided some satisfaction, but consuming a meal-size amount of roots like that would not be a pleasant experience. Clearly, I needed some softer soil. Eventually, I found a colony of arrowweed growing in sand and that led to the assessment above. Those roots were much easier to gather. Arrowweed roots seem to be a decent wild food, but the scarcity of reports indicating that Native Americans utilized them as food is a concern. Arrowweed is definitely worth further investigation.

IDENTIFICATION: The Pluchea genus is currently represented by about 10 species in the United States, of which only 2 occur in the Southwest. Nothing else looks similar to arrowweed, except for camphorweed (P. odorata) which is a smaller, camphor-scented, sticky plant with larger leaves (3-12 cm long) bearing small teeth on the margins.

Description of arrowweed (Pluchea sericea): FORM perennial plant or shrub about 1-3 meters tall; nonglandular; STEMS solitary or numerous; straight; and ridged lengthwise; twigs densely covered with soft silky hairs (sericeous); LEAVES simple; alternate; sessile; blades linear to lanceolate, about 1-5 cm long; margins entire; surfaces hairy; FLOWERS disciform; heads arranged in dense terminal clusters; phyllaries overlapping in several series; receptacles flat and nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers purple; inner ones staminate; outer ones pistillate; FRUITS cypselae tiny, hairless, and shiny; pappi consisting of numerous bristles that are often thicker at the tips; HABITAT deserts, washes, and natural springs across the Southwest; blooming March to July.

REFERENCES: Arrowweed (Pluchea sericea): roots Bean and Saubel (p. 105), and Moerman (p. 187).

Deerweed

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Porophyllum genus.

SPECIES: Deerweed or slender pore-leaf (Porophyllum gracile Benth.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Deerweed (P. gracile) is primarily a medicinal plant rather than an edible plant. References to its edibility are scarce. Other species in the genus (P. ruderale and P. punctatum) are cultivated in Mexico to use as seasonings or vegetables. Deerweed can be used in a similar way, but moderation would be wise.

Deerweed (P. gracile) leaves are edible fresh or cooked. Describing the flavor isn’t so easy. It eludes comparison, strays into territory that vegetables don’t belong, and seems to lack an alliance with any known green leafy vegetables. Deerweed leaves are long, narrow, aromatic, and dotted with resinous glands. A wide range of creative terms have been used to describe the aroma of these leaves, such as: pungent, skunk-like, pineapple-like, marigold-like, musty, fruity, fishy, and malodorous. All these terms seem correct, or at least partially correct. Comparisons to chinchweed (Pectis) and other resin-dotted members of the sunflower family would also be correct. The flavor matches the aroma, but it’s not as intense. It’s suitable for soups or salads, and free of harsh overtones. Deerweed leaves may bring back childhood memories of those mysterious vegetables lurking ominously on the plate. Boiling the leaves brings out a deep red-orange-brown color and doesn’t significantly change the flavor. The leaves are soft, but the flower heads (more specifically the phyllaries and developing pappi) are tough. The stems are also tough, except for the tips. Gathering a supply of deerweed leaves is tedious, but a supply is usually available. New growth occurs primarily in spring, but suitable leaves can often be found year-round. Periods of drought may cause the leaves to fall, but they should return after sufficient rainfall.

NOTES: After reading about deerweed in “Sonoran Desert Food Plants” by Charles Kane, I decided to try the leaves. On a trek up Meadow Valley Wash in southern Nevada, I found deerweed growing abundantly along the eroded cliffs overlooking the wash. This wash served as a primary travel corridor for early inhabitants of the region. Aside from the railroad tracks and livestock corrals, little has changed along Meadow Valley Wash for thousands of years. Being there is like taking a step back in time. It’s a place of peace, where the voices of wisdom speak as drifting winds passing over the endless expanse. The deerweed along Meadow Valley Wash was better than I expected, especially after hearing some of the descriptive terms noted above. I tried it as a vegetable rather than a medicine, but it’s better known as a medicine. As a medicine, eating a few fresh leaves or flowers promotes a carminative action (expels gas) and a soothing effect on digestion (Kane 2006 pp. 74-75). Tea made from the twigs and leaves was used to cure skin rashes, relieve pain, and reduce swellings by the Seri Indians of northwestern Mexico (Felger 1985 p. 285). People of that region call deerweed “yerba del venado,” which means “herb of deer.” Its use as a spice to season venison (deer meat) may have inspired the name (Yetman 2002-b p. 148), or perhaps the name alludes to the feeding habits of deer. Several plants of closely related genera can also be used as seasonings, and many of them are clearly allied in flavor. Deerweed and its relatives are definitely worth investigating.

IDENTIFICATION: The Porophyllum genus is currently represented by 5 species in the United States, all of which occur in the Southwest. Other shrubby species in the genus differ by having yellow flowers.

Description of deerweed (Porophyllum gracile): FORM small, aromatic shrub about 2-8 dm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate or opposite; blades thread-like or linear; margins smooth; surfaces gland-dotted; FLOWERS discoid; heads terminating the stems; involucres cylindrical; phyllaries normally 5, free, gland-dotted, dusty, and arranged in 1 row; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers perfect, tubular, and white or light purple; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical and ribbed lengthwise; pappi consisting of numerous bristles; HABITAT rocky terrain, washes, and roadsides across the southwestern United States; associated with creosote communities; blooming anytime.

REFERENCES: Deerweed (Porophyllum gracile): leaves (as a vegetable) Kane (2011); leaves (as a medicinal tea) Kane (2006 pp. 74-75), MacKay (p. 134), and Whiting (p. 249); part unspecified (as a spice) Yetman (2002-b p. 148).

Cutleaf Coneflower

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Rudbeckia genus.

SPECIES: Tall, green-head, or cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Cutleaf coneflower is essentially inedible, potentially unsafe, and poisonous to grazing animals. Consumption of any part is not advised. The shoots, stems, and leaves of cutleaf coneflower are reported to be edible. Other species in the genus are inedible, but they were used as medicines.

Stems of cutleaf coneflower are edible fresh or cooked. Lower stems are tough, hollow, and unsuitable for consumption. Upper stems taste fine, but the texture is cursed with sharp, irritating, splinter-like fibers. With care, nourishment can be chewed out of the upper stems, but the fibers are a serious hazard. Cooking has little effect upon the fibers. Aside from fibers, the texture is similar to celery. The flavor is mildly resinous and similar to artichokes. It lacks the sweetness of thistle stems, but it has a certain appeal. Stem pieces can be used to build soup bases, but straining out the pieces would be wise. Cutleaf coneflower stems are available in summer, but they are not recommended for consumption.

Leaves of cutleaf coneflower are mild, chewable, nonfibrous, and low in resins. Hairs on the surfaces impart a raspy texture, making the leaves unsuitable for salads. The leaves serve better as potherbs. Lower leaves begin to wither when flowers appear. Even at that point, healthy young leaves should still be available along the upper stems. Simmering the leaves yields a brownish-green broth with a vegetable-like character. Dried leaves turn blackish-green and crumbly. Based on flavor, cutleaf coneflower leaves are a decent wild food, but they should only be consumed in moderation.

NOTES: My initial contact with cutleaf coneflower was in the Sierra Ancha Mountains of central Arizona. At the time, I was unaware of any uses for it. Years later, hiking up the Rio Mora in northern New Mexico, prepared with knowledge of how Native Americans utilized this common plant, I tried it for the first time. I wasn’t very impressed. The flavor was fair, but the texture was irritating. Subsequent samples were roughly the same. Cutleaf coneflower is a tough plant. Perhaps the young shoots are more suitable for consumption. I only tried the stems and leaves. Shoots are more complicated to identify. According to Edward Castetter, the San Felipe Indians of New Mexico ate the stems of this plant much as celery is consumed in modern times. I certainly see the resemblance to celery, but cutleaf coneflower should be approached with caution. Trying to determine the safety of wild foods in the absence of safety information can be frustrating. Although cultivated foods and plants important to ranching interests have undergone rigorous safety evaluations, very few wild foods have undergone such evaluations. Animal poisonings caused by cutleaf coneflower are infrequent and considered anecdotal (based on personal accounts and not necessarily accurate). Scientific studies in controlled environments showed signs of poisoning, but they also showed that these signs were temporary and that the animals adjusted to further feeding without additional problems (Burrows p. 200). This suggests that cutleaf coneflower is relatively harmless (at least to the animals in the studies). Considering that most species of the Rudbeckia genus are inedible, cutleaf coneflower is probably best used in very small amounts. Medicinally, cutleaf coneflower was used as a tonic, treatment for burns, and remedy for indigestion (Chmielewski p. 185). Foragers of the Rio Mora and other places in the Rocky Mountains shouldn’t have any trouble finding this questionable wild food.

IDENTIFICATION: The Rudbeckia genus is represented by about 20-25 species in the United States, of which only 1 occurs in the Southwest. Several varieties are recognized. Western plants belong to the ampla variety, distinguished by its larger receptacles and distribution in the Rocky Mountains. The field assessment for this book was based on this variety. Other varieties are native to the Great Plains.

Description of cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata): FORM robust perennial plant about 5-17 dm tall; spreading by rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; cauline; lower blades deeply cleft (pinnately or palmately) into 3-7 segments with irregularly cut margins (laciniate); upper blades often entire; surfaces hairless or rough-haired; FLOWERS radiate; heads large, showy, and arranged on long stalks terminating the stems; phyllaries green, often of irregular length, and up to 20 mm long; receptacles ovoid or cone-shaped and bearing chaffy scales; RAY flowers yellow, about 25-45 mm long; DISK flowers yellow; FRUITS cypselae narrowly ob-pyramid-shaped with 4 sides; pappi consisting of 2-6 scales forming short crowns; HABITAT plants primarily of the Rocky Mountains, extending westward to moist mountain meadows of Arizona, New Mexico, and eastern Utah; blooming July to September.

REFERENCES: Cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata): shoots Chmielewski (p. 185) and Moerman (p. 232); stems Castetter (1935-a p. 50), Couplan (p. 445), and Moerman (p. 232); leaves Chmielewski (p. 185), Moerman (p. 232), and Vizgirdas (p. 190). 

Goldenrods

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Solidago genus.

SPECIES: #1 Canadian goldenrod (Solidago canadensis L.). #2 Missouri or prairie goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis Nutt.). #3 dwarf or baby goldenrod (Solidago nana Nutt.). #4 gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis Aiton). #5 Nevada goldenrod (Solidago spectabilis (D. C. Eaton) A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The young leaves of prairie goldenrod (S. missouriensis) are edible fresh or cooked. All other species listed above have edible seeds.

NOTES: All goldenrods sampled during the fieldwork conducted for this reference had extremely acrid leaves, and cooking failed to improve the flavor. Of the species listed above, only Canadian goldenrod (S. canadensis) was sampled. The other species that were sampled had no records of edibility, and no seeds were successfully processed into a meal that could be properly evaluated. Many references to the seeds come from Ralph Chamberlin’s 1911 work with the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada which simply states, “Seeds to some extent gathered and eaten.” Considering the nature of goldenrod seeds, I wouldn’t expect the extent to be very extensive, but these plants are common. Historically, goldenrods were used as medicine more often than food, and food uses seem to center around making tea out of the leaves or flowers. An eastern species called sweet goldenrod (S. odora) was a primary ingredient of “Liberty Tea” back in colonial times. Betony, red clover, and New Jersey tea were additional ingredients (DeBaggio and Tucker p. 465). In the late 1700s this tea was popular enough to be exported to China. The leaves and flowers can taste a lot different than tea made from these parts. It seems that any mention of goldenrod leaves being consumed as potherbs is also accompanied by dire warnings concerning the strong flavor. Overall, my experiences with goldenrods were not very inspiring, not even slightly inspiring.

IDENTIFICATION: About 70 species of the Solidago genus are found in the United States, of which about 10-15 occur in the Southwest and Great Basin.

Description of goldenrods (the Solidago genus): FORM perennial, weedy, fibrous-rooted plants from rhizomes or short caudices; LEAVES simple; basal and/or alternate; blades narrowly to widely lanceolate; margins smooth or more often toothed (serrate); surfaces sometimes resinous but not gland-dotted; FLOWERS radiate; heads small and commonly arranged in flat-topped clusters, elongated clusters, or multiple one-sided weeping racemes that together form panicles; phyllaries often papery, overlapping in 3-5 series; receptacles nearly flat, pitted, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae narrowly ob-conic to cylindrical with several ribs; pappi consisting of 20-45 hair-like bristles; HABITAT throughout most of the Southwest, especially in open forests; blooming June to October.

REFERENCES: #1 Canadian goldenrod (Solidago canadensis): seeds Chamberlin (p. 382) and Moerman (p. 248). #2 prairie goldenrod (Solidago missouriensis): leaves Couplan (pp. 448-449) and Kirk (p. 138). #3 baby goldenrod (Solidago nana): seeds Couplan (pp. 448-449). #4 gray goldenrod (Solidago nemoralis): seeds Chamberlin (p. 382) and Moerman (p. 248). #5 Nevada goldenrod (Solidago spectabilis): seeds Chamberlin (p. 382), Couplan (pp. 448-449), and Moerman (p. 248).

Sowthistles

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Sonchus genus.

SPECIES: #1 field sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis L.). #2 spiny sowthistle (Sonchus asper (L.) Hill). #3 common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots, shoots, leaves, and flower heads of sowthistles are edible. All species listed above are native to Europe and highly invasive nearly throughout the world. In warm climates, they can bloom all year, which means the gathering season is all year. In cooler climates, the gathering season is limited only by winter. Spiny sowthistle (S. asper) is the most widespread species in the United States. Field sowthistle (S. arvensis) prefers more temperate regions, such as the northern United States. Common sowthistle (S. oleraceus) isn’t very particular about growing conditions. All these species were eaten in Europe, and Native Americans began eating them soon after they became available in North America. The following assessment is based on spiny sowthistle (S. asper), but all species presumably have a similar taste, texture, and aroma.

Spiny sowthistle (S. asper) roots are tender when the plants are young, but roots of old plants are tough and fibrous. Dry-roasted roots can be simmered into a coffee-like beverage. Spiny sowthistle produces top-quality leaves that are considered safe to eat in large quantities. Although the spiny margins preclude their use as salad greens, they serve well as potherbs. Spines are limited primarily to the margins and midribs. Boiling effectively softens the spines, so removing them is unnecessary. After boiling, spiny sowthistle leaves have a pleasant flavor similar to lettuce. The texture is also pleasant. There’s no fibrous debris to contend with. Lower leaves often turn yellowish-brown and wither before the flowers appear. Upper leaves remain green a while longer. Gathering a supply is easy. Leaves readily detach with a downward pull. Of course, care should be taken to avoid the spiny margins. Stems and flowers can also be gathered, prepared, and eaten. Upper stems are tender, but lower stems are tough. Cutting tough stems across the strings helps manage the problem. Once the flowers finish blooming, the interiors fill with fluffy white chaff. This chaff is inedible and unaffected by cooking. Gathering flowers should be done prior to or shortly after they bloom. Leaves can be gathered anytime before they wither. Spiny sowthistle is a hardy plant capable of growing in the most extreme habitats the Southwest has to offer. Overall, spiny sowthistle is an excellent resource.

NOTES: A 100 gram serving of spiny sowthistle (S. asper) leaves contains: 27 kilocalories, 86 g water, 3.3 g protein, 2.0 g carbohydrates, 3.6 g fiber, 99 mg calcium, 49 mg phosphorus, 29 mg magnesium, 3.0 mg iron, 0.9 mg zinc, and 63 mg of vitamin C. Source: Grubben (p. 511).

IDENTIFICATION: The Sonchus genus is currently represented by 4 species in the United States, all of which can be found in the Southwest. Differences between species are minor and insignificant to survivalists. Field sowthistle (S. arvensis) has rhizomes and large flower heads averaging 25-45 mm across. Spiny sowthistle (S. asper) and common sowthistle (S. oleraceus) have taproots and small flower heads usually less than 25 mm across. Only field sowthistle has glandular hairs in the flower clusters, and only spiny sowthistle has cypselae lacking wrinkles crisscrossing the ribs.

Description of sowthistles (the Sonchus genus): FORM spiny plants about 3-22 dm tall with milky sap; emerging from taproots or rhizomes; LEAVES simple; alternate; bases (auricles) often coiled and clasping the stems; blades up to 15 cm wide by 40 cm long, cut into broad lobes or merely toothed; margins spiny; FLOWERS ligulate; heads 10-45 mm across and arranged in open clusters; phyllaries hairy or hairless, overlapping in several series; receptacles nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae strongly flattened, oval, many-ribbed, and often with additional wrinkles crisscrossing the ribs (transversely rugose); beaks absent; pappi consisting of simple hairs; HABITAT nearly throughout the United States, especially in disturbed areas; blooming from spring to autumn, or year-round in warm climates.

REFERENCES: Francois Couplan (p. 449) indicates that the following species have edible roots, shoots, leaves, and flower heads: #1 field sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis), #2 spiny sowthistle (Sonchus asper), and #3 common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus). Jerry G. Chmielewski (pp. 193-194) indicates that the young roots and leaves of these species and moist sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis L. ssp. uliginosus (M. Bieb.) Nyman) are edible. A fourth species in the United States called slender sowthistle (Sonchus tenerrimus L.) also has edible roots and leaves (Wright 2001-b p. 299).

Brownplume Wirelettuce

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Stephanomeria genus.

SPECIES: Brownplume wirelettuce or desert straw (Stephanomeria pauciflora (Torr.) A. Nelson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Sap derived from the roots can be dried and chewed like gum, or the roots can simply be chewed like gum. Other parts and other species are not reported to be edible.

NOTES: Despite the name, brownplume wirelettuce does not have edible leaves, or at least the leaves are not reported to be edible. I never made gum from any parts of this shrub-like plant, but I did try the leaves. These notes are not meant to imply any fitness for the leaves to serve as food. Even though “lettuce” is part of the name and this plant is related to lettuce, this does not mean the leaves can serve as a substitute for lettuce. Most of the leaves I gathered were from the Ogilby Dunes of southern California or the Beaver Dam Mountains in southwestern Utah. Leaves of brownplume wirelettuce are pitifully small and only available for a short period of time after seasonal rains. Gathering enough of these tiny leaves for any purpose is not easy. They’re simply too small and too sparse. Lower leaves are somewhat more substantial than upper leaves. Fresh leaves taste bitter and reminiscent of wild lettuce. The texture is reasonably soft, but irritating fibers are often present. Brief boiling softens the fibers while improving the flavor. The resulting broth is green and pleasantly mild. Based on flavor, the cooked leaves seem to be a good wild food, but no references cited in the bibliography indicate they are edible. Of course, if the sap of a plant is edible, then other parts are likely to be edible, or at least nonpoisonous.

IDENTIFICATION: The Stephanomeria genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States, all of which are native to the West, primarily California.

Description of brownplume wirelettuce (Stephanomeria pauciflora): FORM small, wiry, rigid, spineless, shrub-like, perennial plant about 3-9 dm tall with milky sap; diffusely branched and lacking a well-defined central stem; LEAVES simple; alternate; LOWER leaves linear, about 2-6 cm long; margins smooth or toothed; surfaces usually hairless and powdery; UPPER leaves small, scale-like, inconspicuous, and often hairy at the bases; FLOWERS ligulate; heads positioned on short stalks terminating the branches; involucres about 6-10 mm tall; phyllaries few, herbaceous, and arranged in 2-3 unequal series; receptacles flat, smooth, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers 4-9, pink, and perfect; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae narrowly cylindrical, brown, and 5-ribbed; pappi consisting entirely of brownish-white plumose bristles, bases of the bristles short-haired; beaks absent; HABITAT abundant throughout southwestern deserts; blooming April to October.

REFERENCES: Brownplume wirelettuce (Stephanomeria pauciflora): roots and sap (chewed as gum): Austin (pp. 84-86), Moerman (p. 252), and Rhode (p. 88-90).

Dandelions

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Taraxacum genus.

SPECIES: #1 rock or redseed dandelion (Taraxacum laevigatum (Willd.) DC. = Taraxacum erythrospermum Andrz. ex Besser). #2 common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. = Taraxacum vulgare Lam.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots, leaves, and flowers of species listed above are safe to eat fresh or cooked. Both species are native to Europe and essentially the same in terms of taste, texture, and aroma. Wild dandelions taste equivalent to store bought dandelions. The flavor is allied with dark-green lettuces, yet distinct and slightly bitter. Dandelion leaves are incredibly nutritious. In fact, they rank among the best sources of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients on Earth. No salad is complete without dandelion leaves. Except for some minor bitterness, the leaves are free of harsh flavors. Dandelion roots have a stronger flavor than the leaves. The roots can easily overpower other wild foods. The flavor is starchy, yet unlike potatoes, parsnips, or whole grains. Chicory provides a close comparison. Like chicory roots, roasted dandelion roots make an extraordinary coffee-like beverage. Perhaps the flavor is acquired, but it ranks among my favorites. The beverage is dark brown and free of harsh overtones. Dandelion flowers taste less appealing than other parts. Flower heads are loaded with milky sap that imparts a bitter flavor. Additional components of the flavor form a complexity not found in the leaves. Differences also occur between flower buds and flowers in full bloom. Sweetness is not a trait of dandelion flowers. The long flower stalks are also edible. Entire plants, except for the cypselae, can be eaten fresh or cooked. Dandelion cypselae have sharp bumps that present a choking hazard. Wild dandelions are a forager’s best friend. Few mountain ranges are without an ample supply. Ample may be an understatement, as the supply is essentially inexhaustible. Dandelions are primarily an early spring resource, but they can bloom almost anytime, so the gathering season is very generous. Dandelions rank among the best wild foods.

NOTES: California has an endangered dandelion (Taraxacum californicum) endemic to the San Bernardino Mountains and characterized by shallowly toothed rather than deeply lobed leaves.

A 100 gram serving of raw dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) leaves contains: 45 kilocalories, 85.60 g water, 2.70 g protein, 0.70 g fat, 9.20 g carbohydrates, 1.8 g ash, 187 mg calcium, 66 mg phosphorus, 36 mg magnesium, 3.10 mg iron, 0.41 mg zinc, 0.171 mg copper, 0.342 mg manganese, 0.5 μg selenium, 76 mg sodium, 397 mg potassium, 10,161 IU vitamin A, 35 mg vitamin C, and many other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: The Taraxacum genus is represented by 8 species in the United States, of which only 4 occur in the Southwest and only 2 are well established. Cypselae are important for identifying dandelions. In southwestern species, the cypselae have sharp bumps on the upper bodies, and the beaks are longer than the bodies. Native and introduced species can be distinguished by observing the phyllaries. Dandelions have 2 rows of phyllaries. Outer phyllaries of introduced species are bent downward, while those of native species are appressed to the flower heads. Only the 2 introduced species, T. laevigatum and T. officinale, are likely to be encountered in the Southwest. These species are differentiated by color. The former has reddish cypselae, while the latter has tan to olive green cypselae. Other species are found primarily in the Rocky Mountains and northward. Plants with appressed phyllaries bearing horn-like appendages are the native horned dandelion (T. ceratophorum). Plants with appressed phyllaries bearing wool below the flower heads are the native woolly dandelion (T. eriophorum). Tiny plants with blackish cypselae and appressed phyllaries lacking both horns and wool are the native harp dandelion (T. lyratum).

Description of dandelions (the Taraxacum genus): FORM stemless perennial plants about 5-40 cm tall with milky sap; emerging from taproots; LEAVES simple; clustered basally; blades oblanceolate in outline; margins merely toothed or deeply lobed (runcinate, lacerate, or lyrate); FLOWERS ligulate; heads arranged individually at the ends of long, bare, hollow stalks (scapes) emerging from ground level; phyllaries arranged in 2 unequal series, the outer ones appressed or reflexed, the inner ones with or without horn-like appendages; receptacles flat to convex and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow, all perfect, and 5-lobed; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae narrowly fusiform, 4-5 angled, ribbed, beaked, and bearing sharp bumps toward the tops; pappi consisting of simple hair-like bristles; HABITAT throughout the United States, especially in fields, disturbed areas, and mountain meadows; blooming spring to autumn.

REFERENCES: Francois Couplan (pp. 451-452) indicates that the following species have edible roots, leaves, and flowers: #1 redseed dandelion (Taraxacum laevigatum = T. erythrospermum), and #2 common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).

Greenthreads

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Thelesperma genus.

SPECIES: #1 cota or longstalk greenthread (Thelesperma longipes A. Gray). #2 Hopi-tea or Hopi greenthread (Thelesperma megapotamicum (Spreng.) Kuntze = Thelesperma gracile (Torr.) A. Gray). #3 Navajo-tea, Navajo greenthread, or hairy greenthread (Thelesperma subnudum A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: (tea only): Leaves, flowers, and stems of all species listed above can be made into tea. The plants are otherwise inedible. Tea made from any of these species has a similar taste, color, and aroma. All 3 species are hereby called greenthread. Only one sip is necessary to understand why greenthread tea was a favorite for so many generations. Greenthread tea is deep golden-orange and free of bitterness. It’s also free of harsh or unusual accents. Traditionally, all the aboveground parts were collected, tied into bundles, and hung to dry. Once dry, the bundles would keep for several months or until supplies ran out. Greenthread tea was an integral part of the Canyonlands. Experiencing the tea brings the consumer one step closer to the past, drifting through ages characterized by forever changing events. It’s a wonderful tea steeped in history. All species listed above have transcended the ages to thrive in modern times. Greenthreads bloom for a long period of time, ranging from May to October, so the gathering season is generous. Overall, greenthreads are fine plants.

IDENTIFICATION: The Thelesperma genus is represented by about 10-15 species in the United States, most of which are native to the southern Great Plains.

Description of cota (Thelesperma longipes): FORM perennial plant about 10-70 cm tall; LEAVES simple; primarily clustered basally and a few arranged oppositely along the stems; blades deeply pinnately divided into 3-7 thread-like segments; FLOWERS discoid; heads arranged individually on long stalks or a few in open clusters; phyllaries arranged in 2 dissimilar series, the outer ones less than half as long as the inner ones; receptacles flat to convex, bearing bristles or scales; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers yellow and often with reddish-brown nerves; corolla lobes ovate and shorter than the throats; FRUITS cypselae linear, dark reddish-brown; pappi absent; HABITAT deserts, plains, and hillsides; southeastern Arizona to western Texas; blooming June to October.

Description of Hopi greenthread (Thelesperma megapotamicum): FORM perennial plant about 20-80 cm tall; LEAVES simple; primarily clustered basally and a few arranged oppositely along the stems; blades deeply 1-2 pinnately divided into thread-like segments; FLOWERS discoid; heads arranged individually on long stalks or a few in open clusters; phyllaries arranged in 2 dissimilar series, the outer ones spreading outward at right angles and less than half as long as the inner ones; receptacles flat to convex, bearing bristles or scales; RAY flowers absent; DISK flowers yellow and often with reddish-brown nerves; corolla lobes lanceolate and longer than the throats; FRUITS cypselae linear, dark reddish-brown; pappi consisting of 2 well-developed, scale-like awns, each about 1-3 mm long; HABITAT plains, hillsides, and mesas; Arizona and New Mexico and northward to the Great Plains; blooming May to October.

Description of Navajo greenthread (Thelesperma subnudum): FORM perennial plant about 5-40 cm tall; LEAVES simple; primarily basal and a few arranged oppositely along the stems; blades deeply 1-2 pinnately divided into narrow (but not thread-like) segments; FLOWERS radiate; heads arranged individually on long stalks or a few in open clusters; phyllaries linear and arranged in 2 dissimilar series, the outer ones spreading outward at right angles and less than half as long as the inner ones; receptacles flat to convex, bearing bristles or scales; RAY flowers yellow; DISK flowers yellow and often with reddish-brown nerves; corolla lobes ovate and shorter than the throats; FRUITS cypselae linear, dark reddish-brown; pappi absent or reduced to low crowns; HABITAT deserts, plains, and hillsides; abundant throughout the Canyonlands; blooming May to September.

REFERENCES: #1 cota (Thelesperma longipes): stems and leaves (tea) Moerman (p. 254); flowers (tea) Couplan (pp. 452-453). #2 Hopi greenthread (Thelesperma megapotamicum = Thelesperma gracile): leaves (tea) Castetter (1936 p. 53), Couplan (pp. 452-453), and Moerman (p. 255); flowers (tea) Moerman (p. 255). #3 Navajo greenthread (Thelesperma subnudum): leaves and flowers (tea) Moerman (p. 255).

Salsify

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Tragopogon genus.

SPECIES: #1 yellow salsify or goat’s beard (Tragopogon dubius Scop.). #2 purple salsify or oyster plant (Tragopogon porrifolius L.). #3 meadow salsify (Tragopogon pratensis L. = Tragopogon lamottei Rouy).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots and leaves (and presumably the flowers) of all species listed above are edible. All three species are native to Europe and invasive in many parts of the world, including North America. In the southwestern United States, they bloom anytime from April to September. Various parts can be gathered all year long. Roots are available from autumn to spring. However, they are difficult to find in winter and tend to be woody in summer. Leaves can be gathered from when they first appear until they wither, which is most of the growing season. Roots are more valuable than the leaves or flowers. In fact, purple salsify (T. porrifolius) has been cultivated as a root vegetable in Europe since the 15th century (Hanelt p. 2067). The following assessment is based on yellow salsify (T. dubius), but all 3 species may have a similar taste, texture, and aroma.

Roots of yellow salsify (T. dubius) are white with tan skins. Gathering is best done before the stems appear. After that point, the roots become woody and no amount of cooking adequately softens the texture. Yellow salsify normally lives for two years (biennial). Roots are only soft during the first year. In the second year, the roots shrivel as other parts consume the energy reserves. Woody roots can still be utilized as food by simmering out the nutrients. Even the toughest roots make decent vegetable broth, but only first-year roots are good for eating. Older plants are best left to re-seed meadows. Yellow salsify roots measure about 5-10 mm thick by 15-25 cm long. Larger ones can approach the size of small carrots, but most are smaller. Cooked roots have a starchy flavor with an earthy overtone and an oyster-like accent. Some bitterness is normal, but resinous overtones common to the sunflower family are essentially absent from salsify. It’s a very pleasant flavor, and the texture is equivalent to carrots. Peeling the skins minimizes bitterness. Yellow salsify roots are perfect for soups. Boiling produces a cloudy white broth of exceptionally high value. Dry-roasted roots make an extraordinary coffee-like beverage.

Leaves of yellow salsify (T. dubius) rank among the best salad materials on Earth. When eaten fresh, the flavor is mild, lettuce-like, and almost free of bitterness. Milky latex, common to the chicory tribe of the sunflower family, is exceptionally mild in yellow salsify. It’s far less bitter than the latex in wild lettuces. Yellow salsify leaves are suitable for any culinary purpose. Most western mountains have an ample supply of this plant.

Flowers of yellow salsify (T. dubius), as well as those of other species, apparently eluded documentation in ethnobotanical literature. All the attention is placed on the roots and leaves, while the flowers are overlooked. Yellow salsify flowers taste reminiscent of artichokes combined with green beans and a slightly bitter accent. It’s a pleasantly mild flavor. Fresh flowers make a stunning garnish. After cooking, they serve well as vegetables. The first 10-20 cm of stalks (peduncles) below the flower heads also serve well as vegetables. These stalks are mild, tender, hollow, free of fibers, and perfect for stir-fries. Yellow salsify is a remarkable plant that blooms throughout the growing season over a wide range of elevations. In the Southwest, it generally prefers mountain meadows.

IDENTIFICATION: The Tragopogon genus is represented by 9 species in the United States, of which only 3 species occur in the Southwest, Great Basin, and Rocky Mountains. Of these 3 species, only purple salsify (T. porrifolius) has purple flowers. The other two have yellow flowers and phyllaries of different lengths. In yellow salsify (T. dubius), the phyllaries are longer than the ray petals and the peduncles are enlarged below the flower heads. In meadow salsify (T. pratensis), the phyllaries are usually slightly shorter than the ray petals and the peduncles are not significantly enlarged below the flower heads. Other features of these species conform to the description provided below.

Description of the Tragopogon genus: FORM upright, hairless, biennial plants about 2-9 dm tall emerging from taproots; LEAVES simple; arranged basally or alternately; bases clasping the stems; blades grass-like; margins entire; FLOWERS ligulate; heads large, showy, and usually arranged individually on long stalks; phyllaries green, about equal in shape, gradually tapering to points, and arranged in 1 row; receptacles convex, smooth, and nonchaffy; RAY flowers yellow or purple; all perfect, fertile, and 5-lobed at the tips; DISK flowers absent; FRUITS cypselae linear, terete, 5-10 nerved, and bumpy; beaks present; pappi consisting of well-developed plumose bristles that are united at the bases; branches of the plumes inter-webbed; HABITAT throughout the United States, especially in fields and mountain meadows; blooming spring to autumn.

REFERENCES: #1 yellow salsify (Tragopogon dubius): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 453-454) and Vizgirdas (p. 202). #2 purple salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 453-454) and Vizgirdas (p. 202). #3 meadow salsify (Tragopogon pratensis = Tragopogon lamottei): roots and leaves Couplan (pp. 453-454).

Northern Mule-ears

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Wyethia genus.

SPECIES: Northern mule-ears (Wyethia amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The roots and seeds of northern mule-ears can be utilized as food after preparation. These plants inhabit the northern half of the Southwest in Utah and Nevada. Other southwestern species are not reported to be edible.

Roots of northern mule-ears (W. amplexicaulis) are firm, resinous, and unpalatable. They were traditionally cooked for 2 days to help “bring out the sweetness,” but no amount of preparation seems to subdue the resinous flavor. Even small plants produce large roots. Northern mule-ear roots are brownish-black inside and out. The skins are bark-like and need to be peeled. The texture is carrot-like, though definitely firmer and more fibrous. A sharp knife can manage the roots without much trouble. Freshly cut roots exude resins with a balsamic aroma. Simmering the roots produces wastewater, not broth. Root pieces taste marginally better than the wastewater, but it’s a flavor approaching the outer limits of palatability and sternly saying, “Find something else to eat.” Any starch value is lost in the wastewater and overrun by acrid resins. Additional changes of water fail to improve the flavor. Serving size portions are almost tolerable. Meal size portions become terribly acrid, and this acrid flavor tends to linger in the throat for a while. Old and young roots taste equally unappealing. Fresh and cooked roots have the same dark color. Cooked roots have a chewy texture. Overall, these roots are essentially unsuitable for consumption.

Seeds of northern mule-ears (W. amplexicaulis) are contained within shell-like structures called cypselae. Gathering and processing the seeds is tedious. A percentage of cypselae fail to produce seeds. Instead, they’re just empty shells. Thin or poorly-developed cypselae generally have meager seeds that aren’t worth the effort of processing. Insects and diseases often claim a share of the seeds. Despite these issues, colonies of northern mule-ears can be productive. Seed-bearing heads can persist well into autumn, much longer than those of related plants called balsamroots. Northern mule-ear cypselae have jagged crowns, often with a pair of awn-like scales similar to those seen in sunflowers. This chaff, as well as chaff on the receptacles, is rather sharp and irritating. Isolating the seeds is difficult. Most separation methods I tested were ineffective. Attempting to chew the seeds out of the cypselae would be terribly unwise due to the sharp chaff. Actual seeds are whitish-olive and measure about 1-3 mm long. They taste similar to sunflower seeds, but not as good. Grinding whole cypselae followed by boiling and then filtering is the easiest way to obtain nourishment from this wild food. Only a fraction of the potential calories are obtained in this way, but the technique is easy. Northern mule-ear cypselae definitely taste better than the roots. Wind and rain knock some of the cypselae loose, but the majority of them remain nestled in the dry heads. Learning to recognize plants long after they bloom is a good foraging skill. Overall, seeds of northern mule-ears are a hard-earned resource.

IDENTIFICATION: The Wyethia genus is currently represented by approximately 15 species in the United States, all of which are native to the West. Only inedible species grow in the Southwest. Northern mule-ears (W. amplexicaulis) barely reach the northern boundary of the Southwest in Utah and Nevada. Unlike balsamroots (of the Balsamorhiza genus), mule-ears have stems bearing well-developed leaves. The smooth shiny leaves of northern mule-ears are distinctive.

Description of northern mule-ears (Wyethia amplexicaulis): FORM aromatic, perennial plant about 15-80 cm tall emerging from thick taproots; LEAVES simple; basal and alternate; blades of the lower leaves elliptic or broadly lance-shaped, up to 50 cm long by 15 cm wide; margins smooth or finely toothed; surfaces hairless and shiny; FLOWERS radiate; heads large, showy, and borne individually on long stalks or 2-5 in terminal clusters; phyllaries thick, green, and arranged in several series; receptacles convex and chaffy; RAY flowers yellow, pistillate, and fertile; DISK flowers yellow, perfect, and fertile; FRUITS cypselae thick and weakly 4 angled; pappi consisting of scales forming irregular crowns; HABITAT open hillsides and mountain meadows; central Utah to central Nevada and northward; blooming May to July.

REFERENCES: Northern mule-ears (Wyethia amplexicaulis): roots Couplan (p. 456) and Moerman (p. 275); seeds Chamberlin (p. 384) and Moerman (p. 275).

Cocklebur

FAMILY: Sunflower family (Asteraceae) – Xanthium genus.

SPECIES: Common or rough cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! No parts of cocklebur are hereby recommended for consumption. Cocklebur seeds and sprouts contain a toxin called carboxyatractyloside. This toxin has caused a substantial loss of livestock in the United States over the last century. It has also caused serious liver damage and other adverse effects in livestock. Animal studies don’t always apply to humans, but this toxin is indeed harmful to humans. Initial signs of poisoning may include: nausea, abdominal pain, dizziness, and difficulties in breathing. Afterwards, more serious problems such as irregular heartbeat, jaundice, seizures, and kidney failure may develop. Human fatalities from eating cocklebur have occurred in other countries. The toxin is concentrated in the seeds and seedlings, and it dissipates early in the plant’s development. Carboxyatractyloside is a “germination inhibitor” that prevents seeds of other plants from germinating, thus giving cocklebur seeds a competitive advantage. This compound is water-soluble, as such compounds often are (that way they saturate the soil when it rains), so boiling the various parts in several changes of water should minimize the risks associated with consuming those parts, at least in theory. Drying does not affect this toxin because hay contaminated with cocklebur seeds is known to be harmful. Other compounds in cocklebur called sesquiterpene lactones are also toxic, but to a lesser extent than carboxyatractyloside. Cooking is unlikely to eliminate these other compounds. Despite the hazards, young shoots, leaves, and seeds of cocklebur are reported to be edible, but these parts must be thoroughly cooked in several changes of water prior to consumption.

Cocklebur (X. strumarium) seeds certainly qualify as palatable, but flavor is not a reliable indicator of toxicity. Each spiny husk contains two seeds, and each seed has its own compartment. The husks are difficult to remove without a pair of wire cutters or a torch that can cut through steel! Smashing the husks with a rock only flattens the problem. The husks are too flexible to crack. Roasting is also ineffective. Actual seeds are tan with olive green skins and black coverings. They’re about the size of commercially grown sunflower seeds and very similar in flavor, except for an additional bitter component. Grinding, soaking, drying, and then lightly toasting the oily seeds is an excellent way to prepare this questionable wild food. The aroma is enticing to a hungry forager, but the flavor is slightly less appealing. Again, consumption is not recommended.

NOTES: In 1908, concerning the use of cocklebur seeds among the Zuni Indians of western New Mexico, Matilda Stevenson wrote, “The seeds are ground, mixed with corn meal, made into cakes or balls, and steamed. This was a common dish among the poorer class of the Zuñi in 1879.” Several subsequent references refer to this one, either directly or indirectly. Cocklebur is now considered a weed. I first tried the seeds in White Canyon near Fry in southeastern Utah. Despite the dire warnings, everything about them indicated a high food value. Based on flavor, they seemed harmless, but toxins can be tasteless, odorless, and colorless. Cocklebur is often described as a “famine food” that’s unfit for consumption. The leaves certainly fit that description, but the seeds taste as good as cultivated foods, except for a tainted aftertaste. This wild food is worth further investigation.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Xanthium genus are found in the United States, both of which are common weeds throughout the Southwest and Great Basin. Spiny cocklebur is readily distinguished by the presence of spines.

Description of cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium): FORM aggressive, spineless, annual plant about 3-15 cm tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; blades rounded in outline; margins toothed and often shallowly lobed; surfaces rough-haired; FLOWERS discoid, greenish-white, inconspicuous, and unisexual; male and female flowers borne in different heads on the same plant; arranged in axillary or terminal clusters; MALE heads with 20-50 flowers; FEMALE heads with 2 flowers fully enclosed, except for the styles, by ellipsoid involucres that become burs; phyllaries spine-tipped and arranged in several series; receptacles chaffy; FRUITS cypselae enclosed by 2-chambered burs bearing numerous hooked spines and 2 menacing beaks; pappi absent; HABITAT common around water sources, flooded areas, disturbed areas, and fields throughout the United States; blooming April to October.

REFERENCES: Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium): young shoots and leaves Couplan (p. 456); seeds Austin (p. 88), Castetter (1935-a p. 54), Moerman (p. 276), and Stevenson (pp. 71-72). References concerning toxicity: Burrows (pp. 221-226), Dworkin (p. 310), Fuller (pp. 99-101), Osweiler (2011), and Turner (1991 pp. 105-106).