Fabaceae

Bean Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: The bean family (Fabaceae or Leguminosae), also called the pea family or legume family, is a large family that provides southwestern foragers with many valuable wild foods. The family is routinely divided into 3 subfamilies based on flower structure. These subfamilies are called the senna, mimosa, and bean subfamilies. Most members belong to the last one. Flowers of the bean subfamily are said to be butterfly-like (papilionaceous). These distinctive flowers normally consist of 5 petals: one upper petal called the banner petal, two side petals called wing petals, and 2 lower petals called keel petals. The keel petals are usually fused into canoe-like structures that enclose the stamens and pistils. Each flower has 1 pistil and 10 stamens. The stamens are usually united in the lower half (monadelphous), or 9 of them are united and 1 is free (diadelphous). Flowers of the senna and mimosa subfamilies are significantly different and often more regular (radially symmetrical) in appearance. In the senna subfamily, keel petals tend to be free rather than united, and wing petals envelop the banner petals (when the flowers are young) rather than vice versa. Members of the mimosa subfamily typically have flowers arranged in rounded clusters, where the stamens radiate outward in every direction. Individual flowers have valvate corollas, which means the petals don’t overlap. Flowers of the other subfamilies have corollas that overlap, so they’re said to be imbricate rather than valvate. Fruits of the bean family can be legumes or loments. Most species produce legumes. Legumes are dry fruits that split open lengthwise along two marginal sutures. Loments are dry fruits that split between each seed. Both types derive from ovary superior flowers with a single pistil. Keep in mind that several members of the bean family produce extremely toxic beans, so never gamble on unknown species. Always make sure the species is known to be edible and always properly identify and properly prepare members of the bean family.

Acacias

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Acacia genus.

SPECIES: #1 whiteball, prairie, or fernleaf acacia (Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze). #2 whitethorn or mescat acacia (Acacia constricta Benth. = Vachellia constricta (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger). #3 sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. = Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn.). #4 catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii A. Gray = Senegalia greggii (A. Gray) Britton & Rose). #5 sticky acacia (Acacia neovernicosa Isely = Vachellia vernicosa (Britton & Rose) Seigler & Ebinger).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Acacias are potentially harmful due to high levels of tannins, alkaloids, and cyanide-based compounds. No parts of any species should be consumed raw. North American species were generally considered famine foods and utilized by native people only when starvation appeared imminent. African and Australian species are reported to be safer and more palatable. From a worldwide perspective, acacias are important food plants. A thriving “bush food” market is emerging in Australia, where aborigines have long known the virtues of acacias (Maslin). The genus name derives from “akis,” an old Arabic word meaning “a sharp point.”

Species #1 has edible young pods. Species #2 has edible seeds. Species #3 has edible leaves, flowers, and young pods. Species #4 has edible young pods and seeds. Species #5 has edible seeds.

Fernleaf acacia (A. angustissima) grows abundantly across the southern United States and southward through Mexico into South America. Young pods of this species are rarely reported to be edible and are not recommended for consumption. Fernleaf acacia blooms anytime from May to September. Young pods develop from June to October. Only young pods are suitable for consumption, and they need to be cooked to eliminate the harmful compounds. Old pods become tough and dry. Since I didn’t sample these pods, I can only speculate about their flavor. Considering their high tannin content, they probably taste like catclaw acacia pods described below. Unlike most southwestern species, fernleaf acacia is thornless, so gathering a supply of young pods shouldn’t require any stitches! At best, fernleaf acacia is a wild food of minor importance.

Whitethorn acacia (A. constricta) grows from Arizona to Texas and southward into Mexico. Seeds of this species are occasionally reported to be edible, but they don’t appear to be a wild food of much importance. The various parts were more often used as medicine than food, specifically to treat upset stomach, diarrhea, and skin problems (Turner 2005 p. 16). Seeds are available from July to November and they need to be thoroughly cooked to eliminate the harmful compounds. The lone sample for this reference was too small for a good evaluation, but the seeds don’t seem very promising.

Sweet acacia (A. farnesiana) has edible leaves, flowers, and young seedpods. According to U.S. Army survival guides, these parts are edible fresh or cooked, but they should always be cooked. Mature seeds (beans) are not reported to be edible. Gathering the various parts can be a painful experience due to sharp spines on the branches. Sweet acacia would be a fine resource if it was more common. Perhaps it will be in the future as a result of its introduction for landscaping, or perhaps it won’t be due to arid conditions being unsuitable for its tropical preference. 

Leaves of sweet acacia taste fairly good, but they have a stringy texture. Individual leaflets are small (1-3 mm long) and tender. Stripping them off the rachises is impractical, and boiling fails to adequately soften the rachises. After boiling, the flavor acquires a “green leafy character” without any unpleasant overtones. The broth is equally pleasant. Thoroughly boiling this wild food is a wise precaution to prevent accidental poisoning.

Flowers of sweet acacia have a fair flavor and a soft texture. Compared to most wild flowers, they don’t rank very high. Sweet refers to the aroma, not the flavor. The texture is completely chewable. Even the flower stalks are chewable and free of irritating fibers. Steeping the flowers in hot water yields a pleasant tea. However, since acacia flowers are known to contain cyanide-based toxins, a precautionary step is advised. After steeping the flowers, they should be removed from the water and the water should be thoroughly boiled to eliminate any traces of toxins.

Immature seedpods of sweet acacia are almost mild enough to eat raw, which makes them considerably better than those of other species in the region. Several pods may radiate from each flower cluster. All the pods remain firmly attached. Even the youngest refuse to let go without a fight. Young pods are green, tender, juicy, and shaped like chili peppers. A thin layer of flesh is located just beneath the skin. As the pods age, they enlarge, become tough, and eventually turn woody. Only young green pods are suitable for consumption. Margins are the first part to become tough, followed by the skins, and then the seeds. After brief boiling, sweet acacia pods have relatively little bitterness. Most bitterness transfers to the cooking water, which can be discarded. Multiple changes of cooking water are unnecessary with this species. One boiling should suffice. Sweet acacia pods have a mild flavor with a subtle accent suggesting honeydew melons. Unfortunately, an unsavory character ruins the subtle accent. For the most part, the texture is chewable, except for the margins. Overall, all the various parts of sweet acacia are decent wild foods.

Catclaw acacia (A. greggii) may be a hard shrub to appreciate at times, but it provides a potential source of food for humans and wildlife. Immature seedpods become available in early summer soon after the flowers wither. At first, the pods are small, dull green, and sparsely to densely hairy. They can be gathered anytime before the seeds begin to develop. After which point, they become too tough to utilize as vegetables. Margins are especially tough, except in the youngest pods. Catclaw acacia pods are extremely high in tannins. Eating them raw is not an option. They must be boiled in multiple changes of water, until the water stops turning brown. Don’t worry about overcooking these pods. Boiling improves the flavor, reduces the tannins, neutralizes the cyanide-based toxins, and highlights any food-like appeal. However, it doesn’t significantly affect the fibrous texture. Thoroughly boiled pods taste reminiscent of green beans with a bitter accent. Chewing the pods is an arduous task due to the stringy fibers. Even after prolonged chewing, a ball of fibrous debris persists. Edible material can be chewed out of the fibers. Gathering the pods is easy, except for dodging the vicious thorns. The seedpods eventually become dry, reddish-brown, and contorted. Mature pods contain flat, round, shiny, black seeds (beans) that may persist through autumn. Beans of catclaw acacia taste absolutely horrendous. Consumption is definitely not recommended. No amount of preparation will subdue the intensely acrid flavor, or a method that will has been lost in time. Immature seedpods lack the acrid bite of mature beans.

Sticky acacia (A. neovernicosa) grows from southern Arizona to southwestern Texas and southward into Mexico. Seeds of this species are occasionally reported to be edible, but they don’t appear to be a wild food of much importance. Seeds are available from July to November and they need to be thoroughly cooked to eliminate harmful compounds. Sticky acacia looks similar to whitethorn acacia. Seeds of both species probably taste the same or at least similar, but sticky acacia seeds were not sampled for this reference.

NOTES: The term “beans” is ambiguous and the liberal ways it’s used can be very confusing. It can refer to fruits or seeds that are mature or immature. That’s 2 different parts at 2 different stages of development. Fruits are structures that provide a place for seeds to develop. In the bean family, these structures are called legumes, pods, beans, or loments. A sentence like, “the beans were eaten fresh,” could mean that the mature seeds are soft, or that the seeds were gathered before maturity, or that the whole pods were eaten like stir-fry vegetables. In various parts of the world, acacia pods and the seeds inside were gathered at every stage of development. In the southwestern United States, acacia pods were gathered prior to maturity and seeds were presumably gathered when fully mature. A sentence like, “the seeds are edible,” doesn’t necessarily mean that the seeds should be gathered when fully mature. Fully mature acacia seeds (at least those that were sampled) are terribly acrid after preparation, whereas immature acacia seeds are substantially better. Although seeds are usually gathered when mature, immature seeds inside the tender green pods of a species called sinala (A. cochliacantha) native to the western slope of the Sierra Madre Mountains in Mexico were utilized as a source of food (Yetman 2002-a pp. 197-198). This made me wonder if other acacia seeds were gathered before they matured. I had high hopes for acacia seeds when I first read that they were edible, but just one bite promptly extinguished those hopes. Catclaw acacia seeds were one of the first desert wild foods I tried. No preparation techniques I subjected them to ever subdued their flavor. Only the immature seeds and immature pods seem to have any food value. In addition to these “beans,” I also tried the flowers of several species after careful preparation. Due to the prevalence of cyanide-based toxins, never prepare acacia flowers as tea. Always cook any parts of these shrubs. The flowers of all the species that I tried were bland and chewy. Acacias are everywhere, but their value to foragers is minimal.

IDENTIFICATION: The Acacia genus is represented by approximately 30 species in the United States, most of which are not currently established in the wild. Since acacias prefer tropical habitats, the arid western states have relatively few species, but these few species are incredibly abundant. Acacias are part of the mimosa subfamily, which is characterized by long stamens and regular (radially symmetrical) flowers. Regular flowers are an unusual trend in the bean family. Most are “butterfly-like” (bilaterally symmetrical) and furnished with banner, wing, and keel petals. The formation is distinctive. In acacias, the stamens are long and free and often obscured by other flower parts. Shrubs of the Southwest appearing similar to acacias have one or more of the following features: thornless branches, dissimilar flowers, 10 (or fewer) stamens, united filaments, or prickly seedpods.

Description of fernleaf acacia (Acacia angustissima): FORM spineless, shrub-like plant, woody only at the base; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades even bipinnate; ultimate leaflets tiny, oval, and numerous; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in globe-shaped clusters; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, tiny, and white; stamens white, numerous (more than 10), long, and exserted; filaments free to the bases; FRUITS legumes flat, thin-walled, and not constricted between the seeds; HABITAT transition zones; Arizona to Florida and southward; blooming May to September.

Description of whitethorn acacia (Acacia constricta): FORM spiny shrub; the spines straight and often white; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades even bi-pinnate; ultimate leaflets tiny, oval, and numerous; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in globe-shaped clusters; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, tiny, and yellow; stamens yellow, numerous (more than 10), long, and exserted; filaments free to the bases; FRUITS legumes moderately flattened, thin-walled, and constricted between the seeds; HABITAT deserts and transition zones; southern Arizona to Texas and southward into Mexico; blooming May to September.

Description of sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana): FORM spiny tree; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades even bi-pinnate; ultimate leaflets tiny, oval, and numerous; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in globe-shaped clusters; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, tiny, and yellow; stamens yellow, numerous (more than 10), long, and exserted; filaments free to the bases; FRUITS legumes plump, woody, and cylindrical; seeds arranged in 2 rows; HABITAT tropical regions around the world and the southern extremes of the United States; blooming March to November.

Description of catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii): FORM spiny shrub; the spines recurved and irregularly disposed; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades bi-pinnate; primary leaflets in 1-3 pairs; secondary leaflets in 2-7 pairs; ultimate leaflets tiny, oval, and numerous; surfaces generally covered with soft hairs; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in cylinder-shaped clusters; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, tiny, and pale yellow; stamens pale yellow, numerous (more than 10), long, and exserted; filaments free to the bases; FRUITS legumes flat, contorted, and spineless; HABITAT deserts and transition zones; California to Texas and southward into Mexico; blooming March to October.

Description of sticky acacia (Acacia neovernicosa): FORM spiny shrub; more or less sticky throughout; the spines straight; LEAVES compound; alternate; blades even bi-pinnate; ultimate leaflets tiny, oval, and numerous; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in globe-shaped clusters; sepals 4-5; petals 4-5, tiny, and yellow; stamens yellow, numerous (more than 10), long, and exserted; filaments free to the bases; FRUITS legumes moderately flattened, thin-walled, sticky, and constricted between the seeds; HABITAT deserts and transition zones; southern Arizona to Texas and southward into Mexico; blooming May to September.

REFERENCES: #1 fernleaf acacia (Acacia angustissima): young pods Couplan (p. 239). #2 whitethorn acacia (Acacia constricta): seeds Tull (1987 pp. 80-83 and 2013 pp. 79-81). #3 sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana): leaves, flowers, and young pods Underwood (Appendix B). #4 catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii): young pods Couplan (p. 239), Hodgson (p. 163), and Moerman (p. 31); seeds Ebeling (p. 491), Hodgson (p. 163), Moerman (p. 31), Rea (p. 74), Russell (p. 76), and Tull (1987 pp. 80-83). #5 sticky acacia (Acacia neovernicosa): seeds Tull (1987 pp. 80-83 and 2013 pp. 79-81).

Western Redbud

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Cercis genus.

SPECIES: California or western redbud (Cercis occidentalis Torr. ex A. Gray = Cercis orbiculata Greene = Cercis canadensis L. var. orbiculata (Greene) Barneby).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The flowers, flower buds, young seedpods, and seeds (beans) of western redbud are edible.

Flowers of western redbud (C. occidentalis) are pinkish-purple and fairly large. Profusions of them bloom in spring before the leaves appear. When eaten fresh, they taste weakly fragrant and moderately sweet. Astringency is low and bitterness is faint. The flavor is unlike most flowers of the bean family sampled for this reference (which tend to taste like garden peas). All the flower parts are tender. The sepals and pedicels are hairless and darker than the petals. Removing the sepals and pedicels is unnecessary. Soaking the flowers in cold water produces a pleasant beverage with a faint sweetness. Boiling the flowers produces a green broth ideal for soup. Fresh flowers wither quickly. They should be consumed immediately or dried for storage.

Young seedpods of western redbud (C. occidentalis) are green, flat, moist, fairly sizable, and very stringy. They remain usable throughout the green stage and often into the rusty-reddish-purple stage. Fleshy portions are almost nonexistent at any stage of development. Strings occur throughout the pods, especially along the margins. Western redbud pods are edible fresh or cooked. Fresh pods taste like garden peas with a fruity accent and trace of bitter astringency. They can also have acidic overtones. Boiling eliminates any bitterness, but fails to soften the stringy texture. Western redbud pods are fantastic for soups, salads, and stir-fries. Hundreds of pods can occur on each shrub in late spring or early summer. Gathering a supply is easy assuming any shrubs can be found. Western redbud isn’t very common outside of California. Mature pods become rusty-reddish-brown, tough, dry, and unsuitable for consumption, except as a source of seeds.

Seeds of western redbud (C. occidentalis) are flat, round, and brown. Unfortunately, no seeds were sampled for this reference and no descriptions detailing the flavor, texture, or aroma of the seeds were located. In reference to usage of western redbud seeds among the Navajo Indians of northeastern Arizona, Edward Castetter wrote, “The Navajo roast the pods of this legume in ashes and eat the seeds, although it is not native in their immediate country.” More recent authors often cite this reference, either directly or indirectly.

NOTES: Western redbud is a beautiful shrub, but it’s too uncommon to be of much value to southwestern foragers, except in California. I first found it in the Virgin Mountains of northwestern Arizona, then again in the Pine Valley Mountains of southwestern Utah. In these mountains, it’s restricted to moist areas, such as natural springs and canyons. Timing is important when searching for this elusive shrub. Although numerous sources confirm the edibility of western redbud, very few of them elaborate on its value as food among Native Americans. Strips of bark were valued as weaving material for baskets and other items, but utilization of the flowers, young pods, and seeds (beans) as food is rarely discussed. A closely related species called eastern redbud (C. canadensis) of the eastern United States and Canada also has edible flowers and young pods (Peterson p. 122). My experiences with western redbud were promising. The various parts I tried easily qualified as palatable.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Cercis genus are found in the United States. One is native to the East, and the other is native to the West, primarily California. Western redbud is easy to recognize. The round leaves, clusters of pinkish-purple flowers, and flat seedpods are helpful diagnostic features. Redbuds are part of the senna subfamily, which is characterized by: weakly to strongly bilaterally-symmetrical flowers, wing petals enveloping the banner petals in the bud stage, and free stamens that are usually exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals.

Description of western redbud (Cercis occidentalis): FORM thornless shrub or small tree averaging 2-3 meters tall; LEAVES simple; alternate; deciduous; stalks 10-20 mm long; blades rounded to kidney-shaped (cordate-reniform); margins entire; surfaces hairless; FLOWERS showy, perfect, irregular, and arranged in clusters along the main branches or on short lateral branches; appearing with or before the leaves; stalks about equal to the flowers; sepals fused at the bases; petals pinkish-purple; stamens 10, free, and usually hidden within the lower keel petals; FRUITS legumes thin, flat, oblong, 4-8 cm long, spineless, and splitting open at maturity; HABITAT springs and canyons in southern Nevada, southern Utah, northern Arizona, and most of California; blooming April to May.

REFERENCES: Western redbud (Cercis occidentalis): flower buds Couplan (p. 243) and Kirk (pp. 253-255); flowers Couplan (p. 243) and Kirk (pp. 253-255); immature pods Couplan (p. 243) and Vizgirdas (p. 138); seeds Castetter (1935-a p. 21), Couplan (p. 243) and Vizgirdas (p. 138).

Prairie-clovers

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Dalea genus.

SPECIES: #1 white prairie-clover (Dalea candida Michx. ex Willd. var. candida = Petalostemon candidus Michx.). #2 white prairie-clover (Dalea candida Michx. ex Willd. var. oligophylla (Torr.) Shinners = Petalostemon oligophyllus (Torr.) Torr. ex Smyth). #3 woolly prairie-clover (Dalea lanata Spreng. var. terminalis (M. E. Jones) Barneby). #4 Pecos or purple prairie-clover (Dalea lasiathera A. Gray). #5 purple prairie-clover (Dalea purpurea Vent. var. purpurea = Petalostemon purpureus (Vent.) Rydb.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of all species listed above are edible. Prairie-clover roots are generally described as sweet, or at least appealing. Indeed, those of many species, even some species not officially reported to be edible, produce excellent roots. On the other hand, the roots can also taste terribly acrid or soapy and they’re often tougher than wood. Checking a few roots prior to gathering a supply is wise. The various species in this genus can be plants, shrub-like plants, or small shrubs. Shrubby species tend to have woody roots that are essentially inedible.

NOTES: Several species of prairie-clovers were located, identified, sampled, and documented during the fieldwork conducted for this reference, most of which were not the ones reported to be edible. The majority of those sampled produced reasonably good-tasting roots and leaves, but acrid flavors were also prevalent. Species that are officially reported to be edible are generally described as appealing and are probably aligned with the better experiences described here.

Describing prairie-clover roots as “natural candy” may be a little optimistic, but they are certainly flavorful, and anything flavorful is always a welcome addition to the diet. Root textures of the species sampled for this reference were consistently woody, so expecting a carrot-like product sadly appears unrealistic. Root aromas were overwhelmingly pleasant, somewhat fruity, and definitely suggestive of food. Sampled roots had chewable outer layers and thin skins surrounding woody cores. Even roots of young plants were woody and tended to splinter into irritating fibers. Peeling the skins resulted in losing most of the chewable portions. Boiling offered a solution to the woody texture by dissolving the sweetness. The resulting broth/beverage was consistently yellowish-brown, but highly variable in flavor. Some species produced a much better broth/beverage than others, with flavors ranging from “good enough to serve as syrup” to “barely more appealing than soap.” 

Leaves of several prairie-clovers were also sampled during the fieldwork conducted for this reference even though they’re not reported to be edible. Fresh leaves were aromatic, resinous, slightly fruity, slightly reminiscent of evergreen trees, and unlike those of true clovers (of the Trifolium genus). Cooking diminished these accents, and occasionally drew out some of the foam and mucilage. Fresh or cooked leaves tasted about the same, with any pleasantness limited to the aroma. No fruity essence was detectable in the flavor. Only a few species had acrid leaves. Leaves of most species that I sampled would serve well in salads, but like I said, they are not reported to be edible. Prairie-clover leaves are high in protein, but the plants are not very leafy.

IDENTIFICATION: About 60 species of the Dalea genus are currently found in the United States, most of which occur on the Great Plains. Recognizing the genus is easy, but identifying the species is challenging. The gland-dotted leaves are helpful for identification. Relatively few genera in the bean family produce gland-dotted leaves. This feature combined with 4 of the 5 petals attached to the stamen columns is a trademark of the Dalea genus. In the closely related Psorothamnus genus, and in most flowers of the bean family, petals attach to the hypanthium rims rather than the stamen columns. Species with 5 stamens were once placed in the Petalostemon genus. As the common names indicate, prairie-clovers do prefer prairies, but they don’t really look like clovers.

Description of prairie-clovers (the Dalea genus): FORM plants or shrubs, emerging from simple or branching root systems; stems, leaves, and sepals dotted with resinous glands; LEAVES alternate, compound, odd pinnate with 3 to many leaflets, and often aromatic; FLOWERS irregular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in dense spikes or spike-like racemes terminating the stems; calyces 5-toothed; petals 5, free, and commonly white, yellow, or purple; stamens 5, 9, or 10, similar in length; filaments partially united; FRUITS pods plump, obovoid, 1-2-seeded, gland-dotted, lacking prickles, and not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT dry prairies and sandy soils of the Great Plains to Arizona and eastern Nevada; blooming May to October.

REFERENCES: #1 white prairie-clover (Dalea candida var. candida = Petalostemon candidus): roots Couplan (p. 262) and Robbins (p. 58). #2 white prairie-clover (Dalea candida var. oligophylla = Petalostemon oligophyllus): roots Castetter (1935-a p. 33), Couplan (p. 262), and Robbins (p. 58). #3 woolly prairie-clover (Dalea lanata var. terminalis): roots Couplan (p. 262). #4 Pecos prairie-clover (Dalea lasiathera): roots Couplan (p. 262) and Moerman (pp. 98-99). #5 purple prairie-clover (Dalea purpurea var. purpurea = Petalostemon purpureus): roots Couplan (p. 262) and Gilmore (p. 94).

Wild Licorice

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Glycyrrhiza genus.

SPECIES: American or wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh = Glycyrrhiza glutinosa Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Consumption of wild licorice roots can interfere with the body’s electrolyte balance and lead to hypertension, which is better known as high blood pressure (Foster 2002 p. 76). Even gram-size amounts (a fraction of just one root) can cause this problem when consumed on a regular basis (Pizzorno pp. 804-812). The main compound of concern is an intensely sweet saponin called glycyrrhizin. Most people can tolerate up to 400 mg of this compound per day without experiencing adverse effects (Aronson p. 124). Since licorice roots (G. glabra) contain 1-24% glycyrrhizin (Coates pp. 391-398), a 100 gram serving has 2 to 60 times the amount considered safe. In other words, a safe amount of licorice root is about the size of a pencil that cannot be sharpened any more, and that’s not an amount that would be meaningful to a forager. Wild licorice (G. lepidota), the only species native to North America, possesses the same qualities as cultivated species of Europe and Asia (Cronquist volume 3b p. 186). Commercially prepared licorice extracts used to flavor various food items often have the glycyrrhizin removed, or a flavoring called anise is used instead of licorice. Although numerous sources indicate that Native Americans ate the roots and shoots of wild licorice, relatively few sources discuss the extent to which these parts were utilized as food. Apparently, that extent was not very extensive. Wild licorice was utilized as medicine more often than it was utilized as food. Consumption is not advised, except perhaps in very small amounts. 

Roots of wild licorice (G. lepidota) should be regarded with caution because their potential for toxicity outweighs their value as food. Freshly dug roots are yellowish-white with brown skins. A quality knife can effectively scrape off the skins and cut the roots into manageable pieces. Fresh roots have a sweet flavor with a bitter overtone. The flavor is similar to cultivated licorice (G. glabra), but not nearly as good. The texture of fresh roots is tougher than carrots yet softer than wood. Inner portions can be much firmer than outer portions, or both portions can be about the same firmness. Boiling softens the pieces and produces yellowish broth or tea. A few bubbles from the presence of saponins may form on the water’s surface. After thorough boiling, wild licorice roots become completely chewable, except for a few stubborn fibers that impart a gum-like consistency. Wild licorice prefers sandy soils along streams, but it can grow in other soil types. Its preference for sandy soils eases the task of gathering a supply, but the effort involved with gathering a supply is ultimately determined by the depth of the roots. They can be very deep. Wild licorice roots can be gathered throughout the year. An ideal gathering time was not determined, but roots for this reference were gathered and processed in May. Dried roots have a woody texture. Genuine “licorice sticks” really are sticks, and nothing like the red or black licorice candy sold in grocery stores. Dried roots retain a strong flavor with the bittersweet elements of fresh roots. Limiting consumption is important because wild licorice is potentially toxic. No more than a small piece is recommended for consumption.

 Young shoots of wild licorice (G. lepidota) are reported to be edible, but they were not sampled for this reference. The Cheyenne Indians (Tsitsistas) of the Great Plains gathered them in spring when they were less than one foot tall and ate them raw or cooked. They were said to be good until leaves started to develop.

NOTES: Beware of a poisonous plant called mottled locoweed (Astragalus lentiginosus). It looks similar to wild licorice, until the fruits develop. Fruits, even withered fruits from previous years, can easily differentiate these species.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Glycyrrhiza genus are found in the United States: wild licorice (G. lepidota) and cultivated licorice (G. glabra). Wild licorice is easy to recognize. It has no additional subspecies or varieties, and no other species are established in the wild. The combination of pinnate leaves, butterfly-like flowers, and clusters of prickly seedpods are strong indications of wild licorice.

Description of wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota): FORM upright, aromatic, tacky, weedy, native, perennial plant about 30-110 cm tall emerging from a rhizome; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate with 7-19 lanceolate leaflets; surfaces often hairy or gland-dotted; FLOWERS perfect, irregular, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in dense spike-like racemes emerging from the axils and terminals; calyces 5-toothed; corollas white, often tinted with yellow, blue, or purple; stamens 10, variable in length, alternating long and short; FRUITS legumes densely clustered and covered with hooked prickles; HABITAT sandy soils, rich soils, moist fields, canyons, and river courses over a wide range of elevations; central and western United States; blooming May to July.

REFERENCES: Wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota): roots Blankenship (p. 12), Couplan (pp. 254-255), Kuhnlein (p. 190), Moerman (p. 122), and Tilford (p. 90); young shoots Facciola (p. 105), Grinnell (pp. 178-179), Kindscher (pp. 119-122), and Morgan (pp. 72-73).

Chainpods

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Hedysarum genus.

SPECIES: #1 Alaska carrot, Eskimo potato, or alpine chainpod (Hedysarum alpinum L. = Hedysarum americanum (Michx.) Britton). #2 northern chainpod or bear’s potato (Hedysarum boreale Nutt.). #3 western chainpod (Hedysarum occidentale Greene). #4 white, yellow, or sulphur sweetvetch (Hedysarum sulphurescens Rydb.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Consuming large quantities of chainpods or even small quantities on a regular basis may cause weakness, digestive problems, or illness. Some species are apparently safer than others. Native Americans avoided northern chainpod (H. boreale)—the most common species of the southwestern United States—and early explorers in the Arctic became ill after mistaking it for preferable species (Kuhnlein pp. 193-195). For these reasons, consumption of northern chainpod is not advised.

Roots of all 4 North American species of the Hedysarum genus, including northern chainpod (H. boreale), are reported to be edible. However, roots of northern chainpod are also reported to be poisonous (Turner 2009-b p. 316). Chainpods were utilized as food primarily by Native Americans in northwestern North America. Alpine chainpod (H. alpinum) is considered to be the best species, followed by western chainpod (H. occidentalis). Large quantities of alpine chainpod roots were gathered by indigenous people of Canada in spring after the ground thawed or in autumn before it froze. The roots were said to be more tender and juicy at those times. After gathering, the roots were eaten raw or cooked, or stored for future use. Occasionally, they were used as an article of trade. Alpine chainpod grows across northern North America southward to Idaho and Wyoming. Another species with roots that are reported to be good is western chainpod. This species grows from Utah and Colorado northward to Alberta and British Columbia. The last North American species is white chainpod (H. sulphurescens), found primarily in Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Chainpods tend to prefer northern climates. They provide an important source of food for bears, but they’re importance as food to southwestern foragers is minimal.

Northern chainpod (H. boreale) may produce better roots in the northern part of its range, but roots sampled for this reference in the southern part of its range were consistently thin, wiry, scraggly, and woody. Very few roots in the Southwest can honestly be described as carrot-like and those of northern chainpod are no exception. Despite the texture, the flavor is reasonably good. Simmering does little to soften the texture and yields pinkish-brown broth. Northern chainpod roots taste like a combination of licorice, soybeans, and driftwood. An abundance of complex carbohydrates contributes a starchy quality to the overall flavor. Peeling the skins prior to simmering reduces bitterness. Northern chainpod is a shrub-like plant arising from simple or branched roots. Acquiring the roots can be a difficult task, especially from hard-packed soils. Selecting young plants should be an objective. Northern chainpod is common throughout the northern half of the Southwest, but it’s rather difficult to utilize as food and potentially toxic. Consumption is not advised.

NOTES: The northern chainpod field assessments were based on plants from southern Utah. All the plants were growing in poor-quality soils that may have degraded the flavor, stiffened the texture, and contributed to my unfavorable review of this wild food. Poor soil quality is often an issue in the southwestern United States. The low nutrient composition, high alkalinity, and harsh growing conditions impose stressful conditions on plants. As a result, southwestern plants tend to be tougher, drier, and smaller. Considering the harmful nature and unappealing aspects of northern chainpod, this plant is best left alone, at least when growing in poor-quality soils. The promising descriptions of more preferable species such as alpine chainpod (H. alpinum) sharply contrasted my experiences with northern chainpod. I was expecting a carrot but got a stick, both figuratively and literally. All 4 North American species can be found in northwestern Wyoming. If circumstances permit, I’ll forage there in the future to sample more species and clarify the Hedysarum genus. For now, coverage is limited to northern chainpod.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 4 species of the Hedysarum genus are found in North America, of which only 2 occur in the southwestern United States. The chain-like seedpods, called loments, are distinctive. Loments are seedpods that break apart at constrictions between the seeds rather than lengthwise along the edges as legumes do. Very few genera in the bean family produce loments. Chainpods can resemble poisonous plants called locoweeds, but the seedpods provide an obvious difference. Locoweeds do not produce loments. 

Description of northern chainpod (Hedysarum boreale): FORM perennial plant about 20-60 cm tall, often woody at the bases, and emerging from a branching taproot; LEAVES alternate; compound; pinnate with 7-15 elliptic to lanceolate leaflets; surfaces often rough-haired; veins obscure, not appearing raised, except for the midveins; FLOWERS showy, perfect, irregular, butterfly-like, deflexed, ovary superior, and arranged in long axillary racemes; bracts 1; bractlets 2; calyces bell-shaped and 5-toothed, the teeth usually about equal in size, narrowly awl-shaped, and longer than the tubes; petals 5, pinkish-purple; stamens 10; FRUITS loments chain-like, with 2-7 segments, constricted between the seeds, and splitting apart at the constrictions; surfaces strongly net-veined; HABITAT nearly throughout the West; blooming June to August. NOTES: Northern chainpod can be distinguished from all other North American species by observing its inconspicuously-veined leaflets and by its calyx teeth that tend to be equal in size, longer than the calyx tubes, and narrowly awl-shaped. Alpine chainpod (H. alpinum) differs by having thicker roots and 13-21 leaflets. Western chainpod (H. occidentalis) differs by having calyx teeth that are usually unequal in size and shorter than the calyx tubes. White chainpod (H. sulphurescens) differs from all these species by having white or yellowish flowers. Northern chainpod (H. boreale) currently has 3 subspecies. Subspecies boreale is the most widespread subspecies. It’s more tolerant of drier habitats and lower elevations. Subspecies mackenziei is a more northern subspecies that typically has slightly larger flowers of a deeper color. Subspecies gremiale has hairy bristles rising from the nerves on the loments.

REFERENCES: #1 alpine chainpod (Hedysarum alpinum): roots Kuhnlein (pp. 193-195) and Moerman (p. 123). #2 northern chainpod (Hedysarum boreale): roots Couplan (p. 255). #3 western chainpod (Hedysarum occidentale): roots Kirk (pp. 103). #4 white chainpod (Hedysarum sulphurescens): roots Couplan (p. 255).

Hog Potato

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Hoffmannseggia genus.

SPECIES: Hog potato, Indian rushpea, or pignut (Hoffmannseggia glauca (Ortega) Eifert = Hoffmannseggia densiflora Benth. ex A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The deeply buried tubers taste absolutely fantastic and rank among the best wild foods. Native Americans valued these tubers. The flavor, texture, and appearance are similar to real potatoes, with a few minor differences. Hog potatoes are smaller, sweeter, firmer, and drier than real potatoes. The texture is uniform. No woody cores compromise the interiors. Soil moisture can affect texture. Dry soils tend to produce tougher tubers than moist soils. Hog potatoes have thin, brown skins (often with colorful highlights) surrounding whitish interiors. The skins taste bitter, so peeling them off may be preferable to consuming them. The whitish interiors taste delicious. No disagreeable accents compromise the flavor. Hog potatoes are a perfect “potato substitute.” For the most part, they can be prepared like regular potatoes, after compensating for dryness. Hog potatoes are rather dry, so baking them is unwise, unless they’re parboiled first. After parboiling, they can be baked, fried, roasted, sautéed, mashed, or scalloped. They can also be dried and ground into flour. About an hour of boiling is required to adequately soften the texture. Boiling eliminates any traces of bitterness lingering in the skins. Hog potatoes are a necessity for soups and stews. The flavor is notably sweeter than real potatoes, and the broth captures this sweetness. Acquiring a supply of hog potatoes is extraordinarily difficult, at least without a backhoe! The tubers are buried about 30-70 cm (1-2 feet) deep. More energy can be expended digging them up than what they provide in return. Dense colonies of hog potatoes growing in soft soil would be an ideal gathering situation, but hog potatoes seem to prefer hard-packed soils, which only hinders the gathering effort. Hog potatoes are considered noxious weeds, especially in farmlands. Once established, colonies are said to be “difficult to eradicate” due to their networks of regenerative root systems, so gathering the tubers won’t harm the plants. Hog potatoes bloom from spring to autumn. They can be gathered anytime, but above-ground parts are required to determine where to dig. Overall, hog potatoes are an excellent, but hard-earned, resource.

NOTES: Gathering hog potatoes for this reference was a real workout, especially in the overheated landscape of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The reward was ultimately worth the effort only because I enjoy searching for wild foods. If I had to gather hog potatoes to survive, then these experiences would not have been so pleasant. In fact, they would not have been pleasant at all. I passed by numerous colonies before finding some in soil that was soft enough to dig. After selecting my targets, I proceeded to burn far more calories than what the tubers returned for my efforts. Clearly this was not a viable survival strategy, but I was not in a survival situation and I needed to know what the tubers were like, so I burned the energy for the sake of experience. Foragers have many factors to consider when searching for a meal. Hog potatoes, as well as many other wild foods, present this “energy loss dilemma” that forces a forager to search for better options. Just because something is edible doesn’t mean it’s worth gathering. This is even more ironic when the wild food is nutritious and delicious. Relying on wild foods that require more energy to obtain than what they provide in return will eventually lead to starvation. A more attainable resource must be found. All the colonies I gathered from had this attainability issue, but I’m hopeful that some hog potatoes out there will be easy to gather.

IDENTIFICATION: The Hoffmannseggia genus is currently represented by 6 species in the United States, all of which are found in the Southwest and southern Great Plains. Hog potatoes are part of the senna subfamily, which is characterized by: weakly to strongly bilaterally-symmetrical flowers, wing petals enveloping the banner petals in the bud stage, and free stamens that are usually exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals. The Caesalpinia and Pomaria genera are closely related.

Description of hog potato (Hoffmannseggia glauca): FORM upright, perennial plant about 5-30 cm tall from creeping roots and deep-seated tubers; LEAVES alternate and crowded toward the bases; compound; bi-pinnate; ultimate leaflets numerous, small, and oval; surfaces lacking black dots; FLOWERS perfect, nearly regular, ovary superior, and arranged in sticky-haired terminal racemes; sepals 5; petals 5, free, yellow, and often red-spotted; stamens 10, free, and about as long as the petals; FRUITS legumes flat, 20-40 mm long, and straight to slightly claw-shaped (falcate); surfaces lacking black dots; HABITAT plains, mesas, and open areas at low to mid elevations; from California to Texas; blooming April to October.

REFERENCES: Hog potato (Hoffmannseggia glauca = Hoffmannseggia densiflora): tubers Couplan (p. 244) and Moerman (p. 128).

Peavines

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Lathyrus genus.

SPECIES: #1 grassleaf peavine (Lathyrus graminifolius (S. Watson) T. G. White). #2 Arizona, Nevada, thickleaf, or aspen peavine (Lathyrus lanszwertii Kellogg var. leucanthus (Rydb.) Dorn). #3 everlasting sweetpea (Lathyrus latifolius L.). #4 manystem, manyform, or plains peavine (Lathyrus polymorphus Nutt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Species of the Lathyrus genus contain toxic amino acids called lathyrogens. With regular consumption, lathyrogens can damage connective tissues, adversely affect the nervous system, cause pain, weakness, or seizures, or in extreme cases paralyze the legs or cause crippling bone deformities. The medical terms for these conditions are called neurolathyrism and osteolathyrism. Symptoms don’t appear for several weeks and there’s currently no cure once the conditions develop. Prevention is the only solution. From a worldwide perspective, thousands of people have been afflicted by these conditions, mainly as a result of famines forcing them to rely on sweet peas (L. sativus) or other species of the Lathyrus genus to prevent starvation. Boiling significantly reduces lathyrogens, but complete removal is not possible (Deshpande pp. 345-347). Due to the insidious nature of lathyrogens, the various parts of Lathyrus species should only be eaten in small amounts after thorough cooking.

Seedpods of all species listed above are edible, except for those of grassleaf peavine (L. graminifolius). Other parts are not reported to be edible, except for the shoots and seeds of everlasting sweetpea (L. latifolius) and the leaves of grassleaf peavine.

All the Lathyrus seedpods sampled for this reference tasted very similar to pea pods sold in grocery stores, except for being more bitter. Other aspects such as texture and aroma were also comparable. Gathering should be done anytime prior to maturity because mature seedpods are dry, papery, and unsuitable for consumption. Only young seedpods are tender and fleshy. Peavines bloom over a long period of time, from April to September, so young seedpods can be found throughout most of the growing season. Certain species are more productive than others and growing conditions influence seedpod production. Peavines are susceptible to a number of diseases and the appetites of grazing animals. Entire colonies may disappear before the seedpods are ready to gather. The best way to determine the ideal gathering time is to check a colony every few weeks. Assuming the colony has not been eaten, young seedpods should appear soon after the flowers wither. Peavines are common plants found throughout the southwestern mountains, but their importance to foragers is minimal. Their importance to Native Americans also appears to be minimal. All species discussed in this article are native to North America, except for everlasting sweetpea (L. latifolius), which is native to Europe.

Bush vetchling (L. eucosmus) inhabits the foothills of the southern Rocky Mountains, especially in Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. In the appendix of “Handbook of Indian Foods and Fibers of Arid America,” Walter Ebeling lists the pods of bush vetchling for the Southwest and Great Basin regions. This is an excellent reference, but in regard to bush vetchling, it doesn’t mention who utilized the seedpods, the extent to which they were utilized, and whether they were utilized as food or for some other purpose. No other references for this species were located.

Grassleaf peavine (L. graminifolius) leaves are reported to be edible, but they’re generally too small and too sparse to be of much value. Gathering leaves of other southwestern species would be easier (because they’re bigger), but they’re not reported to be edible. The references to edibility cited below indicate that the leaves of grassleaf peavine were eaten by the Karok Indians of northern California and Oregon, but this species only grows in the mountains of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, so either a different species was eaten or the scientific names changed (as they frequently do). In either case, the references to edibility are for the northwestern rather than southwestern plants.

Nevada peavine (L. lanszwertii var. leucanthus) is at home in the mountains of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, as well as westward to California, Oregon, and Washington. Edward Castetter (1936 p. 49) reported that the Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache Indians cooked and ate the seedpods of Nevada peavine. Cattle consumed most of the Nevada peavine colonies I found, but a few colonies lived long enough to produce young seedpods. As with all the species I sampled, the seedpods tasted similar to pea pods sold in grocery stores.

Everlasting sweetpea (L. latifolius) is a common species scattered about temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. In addition to having edible seedpods, it has edible shoots and seeds. All these parts must be thoroughly cooked to neutralize the harmful compounds. Shoots can appear anytime from late winter to early autumn. The flavor is pleasant, free of harsh accents, and similar to the seedpods. Fibers put up some resistance, but the texture is otherwise tender. Young leaves of this species, which are not reported to be edible, also taste similar to the seedpods, except for having a more pronounced bitter accent. The seeds were not sampled for this reference, but identification manuals describe them as hard, brown, and somewhat rounded.

Plains peavine (L. polymorphus) is primarily a species of the Great Plains, but outlying colonies are scattered about the Southwest, particularly in New Mexico. In a 1919 ethnobotanical reference dedicated to the Omaha Indians of the Great Plains, Melvin Gilmore indicated that the seedpods of this species (cited as L. ornatus on page 98) were eaten by children, but not considered to be of any importance to the tribe. A later work in 1935 by Edward Castetter indicated that the Acoma, Laguna, and Cochiti Indians of New Mexico ate the whole seedpods of L. decaphyllus, which is a synonym of L. polymorphus. Another species called Bonneville peavine (L. brachycalyx) does not appear to be the species that Gilmore was referring to, even though some authorities consider it a synonym (see Rydberg pages 526-529 for a technical description). Only minor differences distinguish these species. For scientific names in the Lathyrus genus, I followed the Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Although I never found plains peavine, I found Bonneville peavine in western Utah. As with all the species I sampled, the seedpods tasted similar to pea pods sold in grocery stores, but with a bitter overtone. Textures were rather stringy, and interiors were mostly hollow except for the developing seeds. It’s likely that the seedpods of plains peavine have similar aspects. Considering the Omaha Indian’s view of plains peavine, this plant is probably best left for small animals that can be hunted.

NOTES: Species sampled for this reference include: Bonneville peavine (L. brachycalyx), grassleaf peavine (L. graminifolius), Nevada peavine (L. lanszwertii var. leucanthus), and everlasting sweetpea (L. latifolius). I also found aspen peavine (L. laetivirens), bush vetchling (L. eucosmus), and garden sweetpea (L. odoratus), but the seedpods of these latter species were not ready at the time or the plants were in protected areas. The Lathyrus genus is yet another “taxonomical disaster zone.” It’s possible that the seedpods of all species can be eaten in small amounts after thorough cooking, but there is no evidence to substantiate this statement. References to Native Americans using peavines as food are rather scarce, which suggests that peavines are probably best avoided.

IDENTIFICATION: About 40-45 species of the Lathyrus genus are found in the United States, of which about 10 occur in the Southwest. Lathyrus species have pinnate leaves ending in tendrils. A few species have rudimentary tendrils, but those of most species are prehensile (well developed and adapted for grasping). In the Southwest, only 2 genera within the bean family (Lathyrus and Vicia) have pinnate leaves ending in tendrils. Differences between these genera are seen primarily in the leaves and styles. Peavines (Lathyrus) tend to have fewer leaves than vetches (Vicia). Peavines also have weakly to strongly flattened styles with hairs limited to just one side. Vetches have rounded styles with hairs encircling the tips. As the name peavine so aptly implies, these vine-like plants produce pea-like fruits. Features distinguishing the species (amount of hair, number of leaflets, shape of stipules, development of tendrils, and flower color) vary greatly in the wild. A few species in the Astragalus genus have tendril-like rachises extending beyond the leaflets in place of terminal leaflets, but this is an exception rather than a trend. Only vetches are likely to be confused with peavines.

Description of peavines (the Lathyrus genus): FORM upright or clambering plants about 10-90 cm tall; STEMS often angled, ridged, or winged; LEAVES alternate; compound; even pinnate with 2-12 linear, lanceolate, or elliptic leaflets; margins entire; surfaces hairy or hairless; stipules well developed; stipels absent; tendrils poorly to well developed, simple or forked; FLOWERS showy, perfect, irregular, butterfly-like, and arranged individually or several in racemes emerging from the axils and terminals; calyces 5-toothed; petals 5, white, yellow, pink, reddish-purple, or bluish-purple; styles 1, bent at right angles, flattened in cross section, and hairy only on one side; stamens 10, arranged in two groups, 1 free, the other 9 fused (diadelphous); FRUITS legumes flat to plump, long, and narrow; HABITAT diverse, including sand dunes, dry washes, sagebrush valleys, grasslands, mesas, juniper woodlands, pine, oak, and aspen forests; nearly throughout the Southwest; blooming April to September.

REFERENCES: #1 grassleaf peavine (Lathyrus graminifolius): leaves Anderson (p. 274), Campbell (p. 138), and Moerman (p. 136). #2 aspen peavine (Lathyrus lanszwertii var. leucanthus): seedpods Castetter (1936 p. 49) and Moerman (p. 136). #3 everlasting sweetpea (Lathyrus latifolius): young shoots, seedpods, and seeds Couplan (pp. 256-257). #4 manystem peavine (Lathyrus polymorphus): seedpods Castetter (1935-a p. 32, cited as L. decaphyllus) and Gilmore (p. 98, cited as L. ornatus).

Shrubby Deervetch

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Lotus genus.

SPECIES: Shrubby deervetch (Lotus rigidus (Benth.) Greene = Acmispon rigidus (Benth.) Brouillet = Hosackia rigida Benth. = Ottleya rigida (Benth.) D. D. Sokolo).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: (tea only): Warning! Several species in the Lotus genus contain toxins called cyanogenic glycosides that are potentially fatal. Poisoning occurs rapidly as a result of respiratory failure. Very few species in the Lotus genus are reported to be edible and very little information exists to confirm or refute their safety. Caution, along with a specific processing technique, is highly advised. Since cyanogenic glycosides are water-soluble, they can be removed by prolonged boiling (Deshpande pp. 338-342, and 376).

Shrubby deervetch (L. rigidus) is a small shrub that thrives in rocky habitats at low to mid elevations, especially in central Arizona. Leaves and flowers of shrubby deervetch can be prepared as tea, but consumption of this tea is dangerous. After the leaves and/or flowers have been steeped, these parts should be removed, and the tea should be thoroughly boiled to drive off any harmful compounds. Shrubby deervetch tea has an herbal character with elements of clovers and vetches, minus the perfume-like aspect of vetches. A pleasant sweetness and fruity accent may also be present, along with notes of honeybush tea of African origin. The leaves taste similar to clovers, while the flowers taste more like vetches. Leaves alone, or in combination with the flowers, make the best tea. Flowers alone make a less flavorful tea. Aromatic qualities are retained in dried materials, so sprigs can be gathered, tied into bundles, dried, and stored for brewing at a later date. Gathering sprigs is easier than gathering leaves because individual leaves are tiny and sparse. Early settlers prepared shrubby deervetch tea as a tonic under the name Hills tea. Overall, it’s an excellent tea, but its safety record is questionable.

IDENTIFICATION: The Lotus genus is currently represented by 40-45 species in the United States, almost all of which are native to the West. The genus is highly complex and unrelated to the Nelumbo genus with plants commonly called lotus. Orange-yellow flowers arranged in head-like umbels are trademarks of the Lotus genus.

Description of shrubby deervetch (Lotus rigidus): FORM shrub-like perennial about 30-110 cm tall (bigger than most species); stems rigid; LEAVES alternate; compound; well-spaced; stipules gland-like; stipels absent; leaflets 3-5, oblanceolate or obovate; margins entire; surfaces rough-haired (strigose) and not gland-dotted; tendrils absent; FLOWERS perfect, irregular, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in clusters of 1-3 on 3-5 cm long peduncles emerging from the axils; corollas orange-yellow, 12-22 mm long; stigmas essentially hairless; stamens 10, arranged in two groups (1 free, the other 9 fused), and all equal in length; FRUITS legumes 20-40 mm long, generally flat, straight, and splitting open at maturity; plants of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts; blooming February to May.

REFERENCES: Shrubby deervetch (Lotus rigidus): leaves (prepared as tea) Couplan (pp. 257-258); leaves and flowers (prepared as tea) Kearney (1960 p. 425).

Alfalfa and Medics

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Medicago genus.

SPECIES: #1 black medic (Medicago lupulina L.). #2 bur medic or bur clover (Medicago polymorpha L. = Medicago hispida Gaertn.). #3 alfalfa or lucerne (Medicago sativa L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Alfalfa and related plants contain compounds (including canavanine, coumestrol, and medicagenic acid) that can cause a variety of health problems. A few servings of these plants are unlikely to cause any problems in humans, but they should not be eaten as a primary food on a regular basis. Alfalfa seeds (and presumably those of the other species) contain a toxic nonprotein amino acid called canavanine. Upon germination, the canavanine content rapidly declines. This compound mimics and impairs the normal functions of arginine (an important amino acid) and may induce or complicate immune system disorders. The content of canavanine can be greatly reduced by boiling, but it’s difficult to eliminate. Regular consumption of wild foods containing this compound is unwise and likely to cause health problems.

Leaves, flowers, and seeds of all species listed above are edible. Since these species are native to Europe and Asia, they were never a significant part of the Native American diet.

Black medic (M. lupulina) is found on all continents except Antarctica. The leaves range in flavor from reasonably palatable to terribly unappealing. Fresh leaves taste similar to alfalfa, except for being more acrid and bitter. Using them as salad material could be risky. Some populations are unsuitable for salads and barely suitable as potherbs. Other populations are fine fresh or cooked. Tasting a few leaves prior to gathering a supply is wise. Flowers usually taste slightly better. Stems, except for the upper parts, are tough and need to be removed. Leaves and flowers are easily stripped off the stems. Hairs on the various parts don’t pose any problems. Overall, compared to all the species I sampled, black medic isn’t one of the better species, but it is common.

Bur medic (M. polymorpha) is common on all continents except Antarctica. Fresh leaves taste similar to clovers and alfalfa. They can serve as salad greens, but are better as potherbs. Salads composed entirely of bur medic leaves would not be very appealing due to an acrid bite. Mixing the leaves with other salad greens would be wise. Bur medic leaves have spiny margins, but the spines are weak and don’t pose any problems. Fruits are also spiny, hence the name bur medic. Gathering this plant is easy. All the aboveground portions can be tossed into a stewpot after removing any burs (mature fruits). Stems don’t need to be removed. Bur medic is a low-lying plant. Compared to all the species I sampled, it ranks among the better species, but it’s susceptible to diseases and not very leafy.

Alfalfa (M. sativa) has been eaten raw or cooked for thousands of years. The name derives from an Arabic word for the plant. Alfalfa leaves can be eaten fresh, but they tend to taste unappealing. The sprouted seeds taste considerably better. The flowers also taste better and have a sweetness not found in the leaves. Sprouted seeds are mild enough to eat raw, but cooking is usually required for the other parts. Cooking improves the flavor by reducing harsh overtones. All these parts have a soft texture, but the stems are tough, wiry, and fibrous. Stems are unaffected by cooking and need to be removed. Alfalfa leaves and flowers are suitable as potherbs, but even after hours of simmering, an unappealing character lurks in the flavor. Alfalfa leaves are an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. Alfalfa sprouts are also nutritious. Gathering alfalfa is easy. It frequently escapes from cultivation and establishes along roads, fences, and washes. Wild colonies are also common. Alfalfa can be gathered nearly throughout the growing season. It’s a valuable resource, but it’s also susceptible to diseases, so always check for anything out of the ordinary. Its purple flowers are distinctive. Other southwestern species of the Medicago genus have yellow flowers.

NOTES: Leaves of all Medicago species sampled for this reference tasted worse than I expected. I thought they would taste mild, like clover leaves, but harsh overtones were far too common. Only a few samples genuinely qualified as mild. Samples from the northeastern United States also had harsh overtones, so the problem is not exclusive to southwestern plants. Medicago leaves seem better than Melilotus leaves, but not by much.

A 100 gram serving of raw alfalfa (Medicago sativa) sprouts contains: 23 kilocalories, 92.82 grams of water, 3.99 g protein, 0.69 g fat, 2.10 g carbohydrates, 0.4 g ash, 32 mg calcium, 70 mg phosphorus, 27 mg magnesium, 0.96 mg iron, 0.92 mg zinc, 6 mg sodium, 79 mg potassium, 0.157 mg copper, 0.188 mg manganese, 0.6 µg selenium, 155 IU vitamin A, 8.2 mg vitamin C, 30.5 µg vitamin K, and many other nutrients. Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.

IDENTIFICATION: The Medicago genus is represented by about 20 species in the United States, of which 7 occur in the greater Southwest. Only the following species are likely to be encountered. Others are uncommon or barely enter the region.

Description of black medic (Medicago lupulina): FORM low-lying annual plant; STEMS about 15-60 cm long; LEAVES compound; alternate; trifoliate; stipules acute and normally entire; leaflets obovate to nearly round; margins finely toothed near the tips; surfaces often sparsely hairy; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, tiny, ovary superior, and arranged in many-flowered head-like or spike-like racemes; sepals 5; petals 5 and yellow; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes black, kidney-shaped, one-seeded, and not prickly; surfaces veiny and often finely hairy; HABITAT fields, meadows, and disturbed areas; throughout the United States and elsewhere; blooming May to October.

Description of bur medic (Medicago polymorpha): FORM low-lying annual plant; STEMS about 15-60 cm long; LEAVES compound; alternate; trifoliate; stipules sharply and irregularly cut; leaflets obovate to nearly round; margins sharply toothed near the tips; surfaces often sparsely hairy; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, tiny, ovary superior, and arranged in few-flowered head-like racemes; sepals 5; petals 5, yellow; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes spirally coiled, prickly, and many-seeded; HABITAT fields, meadows, and disturbed areas in valleys and mountains; throughout the United States and elsewhere; blooming May to October. NOTES: Spotted medic (M. arabica) is very similar, except for having leaflets bearing red spots. Little medic (M. minima) is a small, uncommon, densely hairy species also producing prickly seedpods.

Description of alfalfa (Medicago sativa): FORM perennial plant about 30-110 cm tall; LEAVES compound; alternate; trifoliate; stipules entire or toothed; leaflets narrowly to widely obovate or oblanceolate; margins finely toothed near the tips; surfaces normally hairy; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in long racemes; sepals 5; petals 5, purple, bluish-purple, or occasionally white; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes spirally coiled, many-seeded, often finely hairy, and not prickly; HABITAT valleys, fields, roadsides, and mountain meadows; frequently escaping cultivation; throughout the United States and elsewhere; blooming May to October. NOTES: Yellow alfalfa (M. falcata) differs by having yellow flowers and curved seedpods.

REFERENCES: #1 black medic (Medicago lupulina): leaves Couplan (p. 259); flowers Couplan (p. 259); seeds Peterson (p. 80) and Yanovski (p. 37). #2 bur medic (Medicago polymorpha = Medicago hispida): leaves Couplan (p. 259); flowers Couplan (p. 259); seeds Moerman (p. 154). #3 alfalfa (Medicago sativa): sprouts, leaves, and flowers Couplan (p. 259); seeds Yanovski (p. 37).

Sweetclovers

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Melilotus genus.

SPECIES: #1 white sweetclover (Melilotus albus Medik.). #2 Indian sweetclover (Melilotus indicus (L.) All.). #3 yellow sweetclover or melilot (Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Wilted, moldy, or fermented sweetclovers are toxic, mainly due to the breakdown of coumarin into dicoumarol which interferes with the blood’s ability to clot and causes potentially life-threatening hemorrhaging. Fresh or properly dried sweetclover leaves lack these detrimental actions (McDowell p. 244). Sweetclover poisoning is mainly a problem with livestock fed moldy sweetclover hay. Livestock may bleed to death without treatment due to the strong anticoagulant effect of dicoumarol. Significant losses of livestock have occurred over the last century. Administration of vitamin K counteracts the adverse effects of dicoumarol in animals and humans (Rizk p. 113). Only wilted, moldy, or fermented sweetclover leaves are toxic. Fresh leaves provide valuable forage for livestock and flowers provide nectar for honeybees. In fact, sweetclovers are often cultivated for these purposes. Problems arise when sweetclovers are cut for hay and stored under moist conditions that allow fungi to metabolize coumarin into dicoumarol. Coumarin is considered harmless (Burrows p. 584), so fresh, young, healthy leaves should not pose any risks to humans. Seeds of sweetclovers also have problems. They contain large amounts of a toxic nonprotein amino acid called canavanine. This compound mimics and impairs the normal functions of arginine (an important amino acid) and may induce or complicate immune system disorders. The content of canavanine in foods can be significantly reduced by boiling, but it’s difficult to eliminate. Regular consumption of foods containing this compound is unwise and likely to cause health problems.

Leaves, flowers, and seeds of all species listed above are edible and similar in taste, texture, and aroma. Leaves of true clovers (of the Trifolium genus) taste superior. “Sweet” is a reference to the aroma rather than the flavor. There’s nothing sweet about the flavor. The flowers have a scent that some people describe as sweet or vanilla-like. Fresh leaves have a hay-like scent due to the high concentrations of coumarin. Sweetclovers are extraordinarily successful plants. Originally native to Europe and Asia, all species listed above are now abundant on every continent except Antarctica. Since none of the species listed above are native to North America, they were never a significant part of the Native American diet.

Leaves and flowers of sweetclovers are edible fresh or cooked. Fresh parts have a sweet aroma underlying a predominantly hay-like aroma, and a flavor ranging from reasonably good to terribly unappealing. Better-quality leaves and flowers may be suitable for salads, but the trend is towards unsuitable. These parts are generally acrid, distasteful, and best utilized as potherbs. Boiling improves the flavor and produces a mediocre broth with a clover-like aroma. Discarding this “broth” may be preferable to consuming it. The flowers taste somewhat better than the leaves, compliments of the nectar. White and yellow sweetclovers are essentially the same, except for flower color. Indian sweetclover is smaller and more often affected by diseases. The boiled flavor of all 3 species retains elements of the fresh flavor. Stems remain tough after preparation, so removing them beforehand is wise. Other parts have a soft texture. Leaves can effectively be pulled off the stems with a simple downward motion. Sweetclovers are nutritious and high in protein. They provide valuable forage material for grazing animals and for hungry people searching for a meal.

Seeds (beans) of sweetclovers are hard and come in a variety of colors including yellow, tan, olive, brown, rust, and burgundy. Gathering and processing the seeds couldn’t be much easier. One simple upward motion effectively strips the seeds off a plant. About 45 minutes of boiling is required to soften the seeds, or just a few minutes of toasting. The flavor isn’t particularly good regardless of how they’re prepared, but boiling yields better results. Toasting highlights the unappealing aspects, while boiling subdues them. Toasting quickly turns the texture from hard to delicately crunchy and applies a charred accent to the overall flavor. Boiling turns the texture to mush and eliminates bitter overtones. Boiling the seeds alone and discarding the initial cooking water is recommended because bitter aspects transfer to the water. After 45 minutes of boiling, the seeds double in size and make a decent wild food. The flavor is reminiscent of ordinary beans combined with notes of alfalfa. Toasting the seeds prior to boiling them produces a coffee-like beverage rather than wastewater. The abundance, ease of gathering, and ease of processing make sweetclover seeds a valuable wild food.

NOTES: The sweetclover field assessments were based on all species listed above. I tried all the edible parts of these species, except for the seeds of Indian sweetclover (Melilotus indicus). Sweetclovers are incredibly abundant in the Southwest and that makes them very attractive to foragers. Several better “bean options” exist in the southern half of the Southwest—such as mesquite, tepary, palo verde, and desert ironwood—but options are more limited northward. Beans are an important wild food because they’re easy to gather, easy to process, and high in protein. However, the abundance of harmful compounds in sweetclover seeds/beans is unfortunate.

IDENTIFICATION: The Melilotus genus is represented by 9 species in the United States, of which only 3 occur in the Southwest. All 3 species are nonnative and look similar, differing mainly by flower color or overall size.

Description of white sweetclover (Melilotus albus): FORM upright perennial plant about 5-22 dm tall; LEAVES alternate; compound; trifoliate; stipules narrow and bristle-like; leaflets oval, obovate, or oblanceolate; margins finely toothed; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, 4-7 mm long, and arranged in racemes; calyces 5-toothed; corollas white; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes ovoid, 3-4 mm long, net-ridged, not spirally coiled, and not bristly; seeds smooth; HABITAT fields, roadsides, and agricultural areas; nearly throughout the world, including the southwestern United States over a wide range of elevations; blooming May to October.

Description of Indian sweetclover (Melilotus indicus): FORM upright annual plant about 2-7 dm tall; LEAVES alternate; compound; trifoliate; stipules narrow and bristle-like; leaflets oval, obovate, or oblanceolate; margins finely toothed; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, 2-3 mm long, and arranged in racemes; calyces 5-toothed; corollas yellow; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes ovoid, 2-3 mm long, net-ridged, not spirally coiled, and not bristly; seeds minutely bumpy; HABITAT fields, roadsides, and washes; nearly throughout the world, including the southwestern United States at low to mid elevations; blooming February to September.

Description of yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis): FORM upright perennial plant about 5-22 dm tall; LEAVES alternate; compound; trifoliate; stipules narrow and bristle-like; leaflets oval, obovate, or oblanceolate; margins finely toothed; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, 4-7 mm long, and arranged in racemes; calyces 5-toothed; corollas yellow; pistils 1; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes ovoid, 3-4 mm long, net-ridged, not spirally coiled, and not bristly; seeds smooth, dull green, brown, or purple-mottled; HABITAT fields, roadsides, and disturbed areas over a wide range of elevations; nearly throughout the world; blooming May to October.

REFERENCES: Couplan (p. 260) indicates that the leaves of all species listed below are edible and that the flowers can be prepared as tea and that the seeds can be used as condiments. #1 white sweetclover (Melilotus albus): leaves Brill (p. 26) and Peterson (p. 56); seeds Peterson (p. 56). #2 Indian sweetclover (Melilotus indicus): leaves Couplan (p. 260). #3 yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis): leaves Brill (p. 26) and Peterson (p. 80); flowers Morgan (p. 79); seeds Peterson (p. 80). References to toxicity: Burrows (pp. 582-586), Knight (pp. 192-194), McDowell (p. 244), and Rizk (pp. 107-116).

Desert Ironwood

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Olneya genus.

SPECIES: Desert ironwood or tesota (Olneya tesota A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Eating raw or immature seeds (beans) of desert ironwood trees can cause illness due to a toxin called canavalin. Mature beans are safe after cooking. Other parts are inedible. Raw beans are yellowish-tan with reddish-brown coatings and have a nut-like rather than bean-like texture. Dry roasting eliminates the raw bean flavor and brings out a coffee-like flavor with a nutty accent. Desert ironwood beans make a fine coffee substitute, very similar to real coffee in flavor, color, and aroma. Whole beans crack when roasted, and over-charring happens soon after they crack. Low heat is recommended. Dry-roasted beans are nut-like and ready for consumption or for long-term storage. Boiling is another option. Desert ironwood beans approximately double in size after boiling. Almost no amount of boiling changes the texture to a mushy consistency. Instead, the texture remains like “wet cashews.” A trace of bitterness may persist after boiling, but the flavor is normally excellent. Desert ironwood beans are high in fiber, protein, carbohydrates, and essential fatty acids. Harvesting and processing a supply is easy, though finding a supply may prove difficult. Young pods are tan-green and often covered with sticky hairs. Mature pods are brown, firm, brittle, and woody. Each pod contains about 1-5 beans, and each bean averages about 7 mm in diameter. Each tree can produce several kilograms (pounds) of beans. Desert ironwood trees are relatively short, but a stick may be necessary to reach the upper pods. Climbing the trees is not a good option due to spiny branches. Desert ironwood trees are beautiful in bloom. Masses of pinkish-purple flowers appear for a short time in May. Seedpods require about 8-11 weeks to mature. Beans are normally available from late July to September, and well into autumn, even winter, as the pods tend to persist. Good crops only occur once every 3-9 years, and these trees can remain dormant through extended droughts. Desert ironwood beans are an extremely valuable wild food. They were a regional staple in the northern Sonoran Desert (also called the Colorado Desert). Virtually all the dry washes in that region are lined with these incredible trees.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 1 species of the Olneya genus is found in the United States, primarily in southwestern Arizona and southeastern California.

Description of desert ironwood (Olneya tesota): FORM spiny tree up to about 9 meters tall; LEAVES alternate; compound; even pinnate; evergreen; stipules forming a pair of spines; leaflets 8-22, small, oval, and covered with fine gray hairs; margins entire; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, showy, white to purple, ovary superior, and arranged in short racemes; FRUITS legumes plump, woody, reddish-brown, 3-8 cm long, glandular-haired, and constricted around 1-6 nut-like beans; HABITAT desert washes; primarily in frost-free zones of southwestern Arizona and southeastern California; blooming April to May.

REFERENCES: Desert ironwood (Olneya tesota): seeds (beans) Hodgson (pp. 170-171), Moerman (p. 163), and many others.

Paloverde Trees

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Parkinsonia genus.

SPECIES: #1 Mexican paloverde, Jerusalem thorn, or retama (Parkinsonia aculeata L.). #2 blue, desert, or bigleaf paloverde (Parkinsonia florida (Benth ex A. Gray) S. Watson = Cercidium floridum Benth. ex A. Gray). #3 yellow, foothill, or littleleaf paloverde (Parkinsonia microphylla Torr. = Cercidium microphyllum (Torr.) Rose & I. M. Johnst.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Paloverde seeds (beans) and pods can cause digestive problems and should be regarded with caution. Several references indicate they are mildly poisonous. Paloverde trees dominate the southwestern deserts and produce seeds by the tons. Native Americans ate the immature and mature seeds of all species listed above. In addition, the immature pods of blue and yellow paloverde trees were also eaten. Immature pods are moist, green, fibrous, and similar to garden peas. Mature pods are dry, tan, papery, and filled with 2-5 hard beans. The ethnobotanical record of paloverde trees is contradictory. Some accounts indicate that the various parts were staple items while other accounts indicate they were only eaten to prevent starvation. All the species listed above are native to southwestern North America.

Mexican paloverde (P. aculeata), primarily of the Chihuahuan Desert, has graceful streamers of pinnate leaves. No other southwestern species have such long leaves. Seeds of this species are reported to be edible, but they’re also reported to be mildly poisonous and difficult to digest. Seeds of all species are subject to this problem.

Blue paloverde (P. florida) is a dominant tree of the southwestern deserts. Its young seedpods have been compared to string beans, but they’re more like strings than beans! The texture is about 85% chewable and 15% stringy. Even the youngest pods emerging from the flowers are stringy. Cooking softens the strings to some extent, but they remain gummy or splinter-like. Strings are woven into the pods. Young paloverde pods taste rather unappealing. The flavor is similar to garden peas combined with an earthy accent and a distasteful element. It’s a strong flavor, but it’s not overly harsh. Any method of preparation improves the flavor. Gathering is best done when the pods first become plump in late spring or summer. Prior to that point, they’re too small. Beyond that point, they’re too tough. Even though paloverde pods may appear healthy on the outside, insects can enter through small incisions, excavate the interior, and leave behind a mess. Later in the season, toward the end of summer or autumn, young pods mature and provide a source of beans. Mature beans of blue paloverde are dark brown, rock hard, and surrounded by papery pods. Except for being too slimy after cooking, paloverde beans are a decent wild food. Gathering and processing a supply is exceptionally easy. The papery pods readily crumble and blow away as chaff. Pre-soaking the beans overnight is recommended to reduce cooking time. Simmering blue paloverde beans have a wonderful aroma. Fully cooked beans taste mild and similar to ordinary white beans sold in grocery stores. No harsh flavors are apparent, but the slimy texture isn’t very inspiring. Blue paloverde beans have tremendous potential for thickening broth. Simply changing the cooking water eliminates most of the slimy mucilage. Boiled beans double in size and become soft. Undercooked beans retain a chewy texture. Blue paloverde beans have serious bug problems. Signs of infestation, such as holes, are usually obvious. Damaged beans tend to float in water, while healthy ones sink. Beans should be parched prior to storage to kill any insect larvae. Blue paloverde produces teardrop-shaped beans of slightly better quality than the pill-shaped beans of yellow paloverde. Beans of both species usually drop soon after maturity, but some may persist for several weeks or months. Gathering them soon after maturity is preferable. Overall, young pods and mature beans of blue paloverde are an abundant resource of limited value.

Yellow paloverde (P. microphylla) is a dominant tree of the southwestern deserts. Nearly everything mentioned above for blue paloverde applies to yellow paloverde. Differences are seen in the shape of the leaves, pods, and beans. Flavors, textures, and aromas are roughly equivalent. Yellow paloverde produces pill-shaped beans of slightly inferior quality to the teardrop-shaped beans of blue paloverde. Young pods of yellow paloverde are also slightly inferior because they have less edible material due to the constrictions between the developing seeds and the tips often become sharp. Gathering times are about the same for both species, and the beans can be sought in winter when other foods become scarce.

Texas paloverde (P. texana) of southern Texas looks similar to blue paloverde. The beans are not reported to be edible, and they were not sampled for this reference, though they’re probably identical to those of blue paloverde described above.

NOTES: Based on the flavor of all my paloverde samples, the young pods and seeds of these trees seem like decent wild foods. I never consumed more than a burrito-size portion for any given sample, but that amount never caused any digestive problems. Larger amounts may cause adverse effects and explain why many groups of Native Americans didn’t consider the beans to be a staple food item. Blue paloverde (P. florida) is the state tree of Arizona and unlike Arizona’s state flower, saguaro cactus, gathering the edible parts is permissible.

IDENTIFICATION: The Parkinsonia genus is represented by 4 species in the United States, all of which are native to the Southwest. Paloverdes are beautiful in bloom, when masses of vibrant yellow flowers overwhelm the trees. The leaves are bi-pinnate, but deceptively appear single-pinnate due to the short common rachises. Species are easily determined by observing the leaves. The seedpods are slightly less distinctive. Despite the colorful sounding names, all the species are dull green, except when they’re in bloom. Paloverde trees are part of the senna subfamily, which is characterized by: weakly to strongly bilaterally-symmetrical flowers, wing petals enveloping the banner petals in the bud stage, and free stamens that are usually exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals.

Description of Mexican paloverde (Parkinsonia aculeata): FORM spiny tree about 3-8 meters tall; BARK dull green and photosynthetic; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; 10-30 cm long and streamer-like; leaflets numerous; FLOWERS perfect, nearly regular, ovary superior, and arranged in axillary racemes; corollas yellow; stamens 10, free, and exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals; filaments about equal in length to the petals; FRUITS legumes 3-10 cm long, strongly constricted between the 2-7 reddish-brown seeds, and tipped with sword-like beaks; HABITAT deserts of the southwestern United States, Mexico, and other parts of the world; blooming April to October.

Description of blue paloverde (Parkinsonia florida): FORM spiny tree about 3-8 meters tall; BARK dull bluish-green and photosynthetic; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; 1-3 cm long; leaflets arranged in 2-3 pairs; FLOWERS perfect, nearly regular, ovary superior, and arranged in axillary racemes; corollas yellow; stamens 10, free, and exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals; filaments about equal in length to the petals; FRUITS legumes narrow, generally not constricted between the seeds, and not long-beaked; HABITAT deserts of the southwestern United States; blooming March to May. NOTES: Texas paloverde (P. texana) is virtually identical.

Description of littleleaf paloverde (Parkinsonia microphylla): FORM spiny tree about 3-8 meters tall; BARK dull yellowish-green and photosynthetic; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; 1-4 cm long; leaflets tiny and arranged in 4-8 pairs; FLOWERS perfect, nearly regular, ovary superior, and arranged in axillary racemes; corollas yellow; stamens 10, free, and exposed rather than hidden within the keel petals; filaments about equal in length to the petals; FRUITS legumes narrow, strongly constricted between the seeds, and tipped with sword-like beaks; HABITAT deserts of the southwestern United States; blooming March to May.

REFERENCES: #1 Mexican paloverde (Parkinsonia aculeata): immature seeds Martin (1998 p. 162) and Hodgson (p. 171); mature seeds Moerman (p. 172) and Tull (1987 p. 97). #2 blue paloverde (Parkinsonia florida = Cercidium floridum): immature pods Hodgson (pp. 164-167) and Moerman (p. 172); immature seeds Hodgson (pp. 164-167); mature seeds Couplan (pp. 242-243), Hodgson (pp. 164-167), and Moerman (p. 172). #3 littleleaf or yellow paloverde (Parkinsonia microphylla = Cercidium microphyllum): flowers, immature pods, immature seeds, and mature seeds Hodgson (pp. 164-167).

Breadroots

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Pediomelum genus.

SPECIES: #1 silverleaf breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum (Pursh) J. W. Grimes = Psoralea argophylla Pursh). #2 Beaver Dam breadroot (Pediomelum castoreum (S. Watson) Rydb. = Psoralea castorea S. Watson). #3 bigflower or Intermountain breadroot (Pediomelum megalanthum (Wooton & Standley) Rydb. = Psoralea megalantha Wooton & Standley). #4 skunktop breadroot (Pediomelum mephiticum (S. Watson) Rydb. = Psoralea mephitica S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of all species listed above are edible. Other parts of these plants are inedible. Indian breadroot (Pediomelum esculentum) of the Great Plains was the species most often utilized by Native Americans, but this species does not inhabit the Southwest, except for the northeastern corner of New Mexico. Most southwestern species were too scarce to be of much value.

Both breadroots sampled for this reference (see notes below) produced good-quality roots. Breadroots store an abundance of carbohydrates in large roots located just below ground level. Digging them up shouldn’t involve much effort. Of course, soil conditions ultimately determine the ease or difficulty of that effort. The sampled roots were off-white with brown skins and had the texture of “real food.” Most portions were reasonably chewable, except for the cores. Peeling the skins is recommended because bitter accents that taint the roots are concentrated in the skins. Boiling draws out bitterness, softens the texture, and highlights the starchy flavor. Peeled roots can be tossed into soup or baked over a campfire. They can also be dried and ground into high-quality flour. Dried root shavings are wood-like in texture, but they readily reconstitute in water. An excellent snack food can be made by frying root shavings in sunflower oil and seasoning them with herbs. Root quality varies. Some roots are barely worth the effort of digging up. Others are well worth the effort. Thick portions don’t always develop. Robust plant growth seems to indicate robust root systems. It’s a good sign to look for. Overall, breadroots provide foragers with an excellent wild food, but they’re not common enough to be a staple.

NOTES: Breadroot field assessments were based on bigflower breadroot (P. megalanthum) and skunktop breadroot (P. mephiticum) from southern Utah. Other species listed above were never encountered. Even had I encountered them, I would not have gathered them because they are too rare.

IDENTIFICATION: About 20 species of the Pediomelum genus (breadroots) and 3 of the closely related Psoralidium genus (scurfpeas) are found in the United States. Most species of both genera are native to the Great Plains. A few species are “weeds,” but most are uncommon. Breadroots are stemless or short-stemmed plants. Scurfpeas have stems. Both groups have gland-dotted palmate leaves, but breadroots usually have 5 rather than 3 leaflets. Leaves of similar-looking poisonous plants called lupines are not gland-dotted.

Description of skunktop breadroot (Pediomelum mephiticum): FORM low-growing, hairy, ill-scented, perennial plant about 4-25 cm tall; emerging from a thick rootstock; STEMS absent or very short; LEAVES basal; palmately compound; stalks long and covered with downward pointing hairs; stipules well developed; leaflets usually 5, obovate; surfaces bi-colored and gland-dotted; lower surfaces silvery; upper surfaces green and rough-haired (strigose); FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like or spike-like racemes elevated on long stalks; bracts present; calyces 5-lobed, the lobes about equal in width, except for the lower one; corollas 8-14 mm long and bi-colored; banner petals white or light yellow; wing and keel petals purple; pistils 1; styles curved; stigmas head-like; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes ellipsoid, beaked, and not prickly; splitting open irregularly at maturity; seeds smooth; HABITAT sandy foothills and mesas; primarily northwestern Arizona, southwestern Utah, and southern Nevada; blooming April to June.

Description of bigflower breadroot (Pediomelum megalanthum): FORM hairy, low-growing, ill-scented, perennial plant about 5-30 cm tall; emerging from a thick rootstock; STEMS absent or very short; LEAVES basal; palmately compound; stalks long and covered with upward-pointing hairs (var. megalanthum) or downward-pointing hairs (var. retrorsum); stipules well developed; leaflets usually 5, obovate; surfaces bi-colored and gland-dotted; lower surfaces silvery; upper surfaces green and rough-haired (strigose) or essentially hairless (var. epipsilum); FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like or spike-like racemes elevated on long stalks; bracts present; calyces 5-lobed, the lobes about equal in width, except for the lower one; corollas 12-20 mm long, purple; pistils 1; styles curved; stigmas head-like; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes ellipsoid, beaked, and not prickly; splitting open irregularly at maturity; seeds smooth; HABITAT desert uplands, mesas, and juniper communities; northern Arizona, southern Utah, and Nevada; blooming April to June.

REFERENCES: #1 silverleaf breadroot (Pediomelum argophyllum = Psoralea argophylla): roots Couplan (p. 265) and Yanovski (p. 38). #2 Beaver Dam breadroot (Pediomelum castoreum = Psoralea castorea): roots Couplan (p. 265) and Yanovski (p. 38). #3 bigflower breadroot (Pediomelum megalanthum = Psoralea megalantha): roots Kirk (p. 256). #4 skunktop breadroot (Pediomelum mephiticum = Psoralea mephitica): roots Couplan (p. 265), Kirk (p. 256), and Yanovski (p. 39).

Peteria

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Peteria genus.

SPECIES: Rush peteria (Peteria scoparia A. Gray).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Although the tuberous rootstocks are edible, they may cause nausea, headache, irritation, or digestive problems. Peterias are closely related to poisonous plants called locoweeds. A species native to Mexico called camote de monte (P. glandulosa) also has edible rootstocks, but this species does not reach the United States.

NOTES: The following assessment is based on Thompson’s peteria (Peteria thompsoniae S. Watson). This species is not reported to be edible, but all 3 species mentioned above are likely to have a similar flavor, texture, and aroma. Of course, any presumption is subject to error. Roots of Thompson’s peteria are white with brown skins. The skins are thin, ill-scented, and remarkably easy to peel. No parts of these plants have an attractive aroma, except for the peeled roots simmering over a gentle fire. No amount of simmering seems to adequately soften the fibrous texture, but an hour or two helps. Thick foam appears on the water’s surface. Boiled roots taste mild, starchy, and faintly potato-like. An acrid, soapy, medicine-like accent may also be present. Except for the fibers, the texture is carrot-like. The fibers are harmless and become gum-like after a few minutes of chewing. Considerable effort is required to obtain the deep-seated roots, but the reward is worth the effort. Based on flavor, Thompson’s peteria is a decent wild food, but it’s rarely common enough to be of much value to foragers, and it could be dangerous to consume due to its close relationship with locoweeds.

IDENTIFICATION: Only 2 species of the Peteria genus are found in the United States, both of which are perennial plants native to the Southwest. They arise from tuberous roots and bloom from late spring to early summer. Leaves are pinnate with spiny stipules. Similar-looking plants called locoweeds (of the Astragalus genus) do not have spiny stipules.

Description of rush peteria (Peteria scoparia): FORM perennial plant about 20-90 cm tall emerging from a tuberous root; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate; stipules spiny, 2-6 mm long; leaflets 7-19, linear-oblong, and less than 4 mm wide; tips acute; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like terminal racemes with each flower subtended by a bract; calyces 5-toothed, hairy, but the hairs seldom glandular; corollas 10-17 mm long, white or yellowish; styles spirally twisted and hairy near the stigmas; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes linear-oblong, about 40-60 mm long, few-seeded, moderately flat, and often splitting open at maturity; seeds rounded; HABITAT dry washes, from central Arizona to western Texas; blooming July to September.

Description of Thompson’s peteria (Peteria thompsoniae): FORM perennial plant about 10-50 cm tall emerging from a tuberous root; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate; stipules spiny, 2-6 mm long; leaflets 9-23, oval, and more than 4 mm wide; tips rounded; surfaces often hairy; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like terminal racemes with each flower subtended by a bract; calyces 5-toothed and glandular-haired; corollas 13-24 mm long, white, pinkish, or purplish; styles spirally twisted and hairy near the stigmas; stamens 10; FRUITS legumes linear-oblong, about 40-60 mm long, few-seeded, moderately flat, and often splitting open at maturity; seeds rounded; HABITAT dry washes of the Mojave Desert, southern Great Basin, and eastward across southern Utah; blooming April to June.

REFERENCES: Rush peteria (Peteria scoparia): roots Couplan (p. 262) and Yanovski (p. 38).

Wild Beans

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Phaseolus genus.

SPECIES: #1 sharpleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray var. acutifolius). #2 wideleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray var. latifolius G. F. Freeman). #3 narrowleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray var. tenuifolius A. Gray). #4 slimjim bean (Phaseolus filiformis Benth.). #5 spotted bean (Phaseolus maculatus Scheele = Phaseolus metcalfei Wooton & Standl.). #6 Santa Rita bean (Phaseolus ritensis M. E. Jones).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! EATING RAW BEANS CAN BE FATAL! Uncooked or undercooked beans contain virulent toxins called lectins (or phytohemagglutinins). Other anti-nutritive factors (trypsin inhibitors, phytates, and indigestible oligosaccharides) may also be present. Toxicology data is primarily for cultivated species, but wild species are presumably just as hazardous. Many beans of cultivation belong to the Phaseolus genus. Lectins cause red blood cells to stick together (agglutinate). This action forms clumps that can clog arteries and stop blood flow to vital organs. Lectins also interfere with the digestive tract and immune system. The human body experiences great difficulties when attempting to stop and repair the adverse effects of lectins. Fortunately, boiling destroys most lectins (Deshpande pp. 333-335). Boiling also reduces the trypsin inhibitors, phytates, and other anti-nutritive factors, so none of these compounds pose much risk when beans are thoroughly boiled. Always thoroughly boil beans! Sprouting wild beans is not a good idea if you’re planning on consuming them raw. Although the harmful compounds in commercially prepared bean sprouts decline rapidly after germination, sprouts of wild beans may pose a health risk, at least when eaten in large amounts on a regular basis.

Mature seeds (beans) of all species listed above are edible. Wild beans, particularly tepary beans (P. acutifolius), provided an important source of food for Native Americans in the southwestern United States. Domestication of tepary beans can be traced back to the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico over 2,000 years ago. Tepary beans prefer to grow in the heat of summer after rainstorms moisten the thirsty desert soil. They grow quickly. Only about 2 months are required to yield a crop. Foragers may find them growing wild in the mountains of southern Arizona and New Mexico from early to mid autumn. Gathering tepary beans is easy and boiling effectively neutralizes the lectins (Brink p. 134). Tepary beans come in a variety of colors and they’re bigger than most other southwestern beans. All the wild beans sampled for this reference tasted equivalent to cultivated beans. Only minor differences occurred in the flavor, texture, and aroma. No harsh accents were present. As with tepary beans, many southwestern beans mature from early to mid autumn. Immature pods are dull green. Mature pods are brown, brittle, and often hairy. Gathering wild beans isn’t without complications. Upon maturity, the pods split open, twist, and release the beans. This happens instantaneously, thus propelling the beans a short distance. It also happens when gathering the pods. A skilled hand can take advantage of this action, but a careless hand may spill the beans. The gathering season is fairly long, yet timing is very important. Beans are produced over several weeks rather than all at once, but only a few will be ready at any given time. Checking the plants frequently is wise. Only a few beans persist beyond maturity. If the ideal gathering time is missed, beans can still be gathered off the ground for several weeks, assuming they can be found. They blend in with the ground. Winnowing wild beans is practically effortless. Overall, wild beans are an excellent resource.

NOTES: The wild bean assessments were based on tepary bean (P. acutifolius), narrowleaf bean (P. angustissimus), slimjim bean (P. filiformis), Gray’s wild bean (P. pedicellatus var. grayanus), and salmon bean (Macroptilium gibbosifolium = P. heterophyllus). Please note that most of these species are not reported to be edible. Differences in flavor, texture, and aroma were too minor to merit separate discussion. Beans of all these species tasted like ordinary beans available at any grocery store, and those of other southwestern species are presumed to be similar.

IDENTIFICATION: The Phaseolus genus is represented by 12 species in the United States, of which 8 occur in the Southwest. Wild beans are vine-like plants with trifoliate leaves lacking tendrils. Coiled keel petals are an important feature of wild beans. Most species have bractlets below the calyces that fall off before flowering time. Wild beans typically bloom in response to summer rainfall and produce crops shortly afterwards. Wild peas (of the Vigna genus) are closely related.

Description of wild beans (the Phaseolus genus): FORM low-lying, upright, trailing, twining, climbing, or vine-like plants; LEAVES alternate; compound; leaflets 3; blades linear to ovate or triangular; margins entire or variously lobed; stipels usually present; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in axillary racemes; calyces 5-toothed; corollas pink, purple, red, or orange; keel petals strongly incurved or spirally coiled 2-3 times; pistils 1; styles hairy; stamens 10, diadelphous; FRUITS legumes straight or sickle-shaped; splitting open at maturity; seeds rounded or kidney-shaped; HABITAT hillsides, dry river banks, exposed areas over a wide range of elevations; from southern California to Texas; blooming in summer.

REFERENCES: #1 sharpleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius var. acutifolius): seeds (beans) Couplan (pp. 263-264), Ebeling (p. 835), and Hodgson (pp. 172-177). #2 wideleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius): seeds (beans) Ebeling (p. 835), Hodgson (pp. 172-177), Moerman (p. 178), and Yanovski (p. 38). #3 narrowleaf tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius var. tenuifolius): seeds (beans) Ebeling (p. 835) and Hodgson (pp. 172-177). #4 slimjim bean (Phaseolus filiformis): seeds (beans) Hodgson (pp. 172-177). #5 spotted bean (Phaseolus maculatus = Phaseolus metcalfei): seeds (beans) Ebeling (p. 835), Hodgson (pp. 172-177), and Yanovski (p. 38). #6 Santa Rita bean (Phaseolus ritensis): seeds (beans) Ebeling (p. 835) and Hodgson (pp. 172-177). References to toxicity: Brink (pp. 133-137), Deshpande (pp. 333-335), De Vries (pp. 40-41), D’Mello (2003 pp. 7-8), Knight (pp. 121-125), Sharon (whole book), and Shaw (pp. 241-243).

Mesquite Trees

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Prosopis genus.

SPECIES: #1 honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. glandulosa = Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell). #2 western honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. torreyana (L. D. Benson) M. C. Johnston = Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. var. torreyana L. D. Benson). #3 screwbean mesquite (Prosopis pubescens Benth.). #4 velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina Wooton = Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. var. velutina (Wooton) Sarg.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Mesquite trees produce seedpods that can be eaten at any stage of their development. Very few wild foods of the Southwest rank of equal importance. Mesquite flowers and seeds are also edible. The various parts of most species are similar in terms of taste, texture, and aroma. Only screwbean mesquite (P. pubescens) is substantially different. For thousands of years, mesquite pods were a staple food for Native Americans in the Southwest. All species listed above are native to that region and dominate large areas of the deserts and foothills.

Flowers of mesquite trees grow in long, yellow clusters (catkins). Thousands of clusters may occur on each tree, and each cluster consists of numerous flowers. Clusters readily separate from the trees intact, and individual flowers easily slide off the clusters. Gathering a quantity requires very little effort. Flowers can be eaten in the bud stage, but they taste better after blooming. They bloom primarily from mid spring to early summer. Young flowers are greenish-yellow. Mature flowers are golden-yellow. Withered flowers are brown and should be avoided because they have little food value and may be unhealthful. Mesquite flowers lack sweetness and taste similar to alfalfa, along with an accent characteristic of legumes. The texture is easily chewable. Any method of preparation yields good results. Mesquite flowers are suitable as the main ingredient in soups or salads. Toasting is a practical method of preparation since it kills the abundance of insects, accelerates the dehydration process, and sterilizes the flowers all in one step. Dusty yellow pollen covering the flowers can also serve as food. Tapping the flowers releases the pollen, along with a collection of unwelcome bugs. Separating the pollen from the flowers is fairly easy, but it tends to trigger allergies. Overall, mesquite flowers are a decent wild food.

Immature seedpods of mesquite trees are green and tender. When eaten fresh, the flavor suggests alfalfa, along with a legume-like aspect and trace of bitter astringency. Comparisons to hay would also be reasonable. Sweetness develops closer to maturity. Mesquite pods become better with age rather than worse. Young pods are mild enough to eat raw and excellent as cooked vegetables. Tough fibers develop early in a pod’s life cycle. Only the youngest pods are free of tough fibers. Syrup made from green pods is strong-flavored. It’s more like vegetable broth than syrup. Comparisons to corn syrup, maple syrup, or molasses would be off target. Fully mature pods make the best syrup. Sugar content peaks at maturity. Overall, immature mesquite seedpods are a decent wild food.

Mature seedpods of mesquite trees rank among the most important wild foods of the Southwest, arguably a candidate for the number one position. Mature pods are yellow inside and out, except for some reddish-purple mottling in some species. Several options exist for processing the pods. Whole pods can be ground between two stones and then sifted to remove unwanted debris. The result is high-quality flour that’s ready for storage. Another option is to pound and boil the pods. The result is sweet broth that can be filtered to remove unwanted debris and then reduced into golden-brown syrup. Mesquite syrup was traditionally used to sweeten cactus candy. Some pods make better syrup than others. Simply chewing raw pods for sweetness contained within the “mesocarp tissue” is another option, but hard materials need to be spit out. Mesocarp tissue is a sweet layer with the consistency of tacky wet sawdust located under the skin. Chewing raw mesquite pods is like gnawing on wood chips dipped in sugar. They contain plenty of sweetness, along with proteins and complex carbohydrates. Sweetness persists in the fallen pods. Mature seedpods certainly taste agreeable, but the strong overtones may be somewhat objectionable to some people. Mesquite seedpods mature primarily from late summer to mid autumn, but they often persist on the trees for several months and those that fall can be gathered off the ground, so the gathering season is very generous. Overall, mature mesquite seedpods are an extraordinary and highly reliable wild food. 

Seeds (beans) of mesquite trees look like golden lentils and require about 1-2 hours of boiling to soften. They’re contained within tough protective casings that complicate the various processing techniques. Casings are surrounded by sweet, sticky, pulp-like tissue (mesocarp tissue), which is surrounded by an outer layer of skin. Mesquite beans rattle inside the casings when the pods are shaken. Isolating pure beans is impractical. Whole pods were traditionally ground into flour between two stones and then sifted to remove unwanted debris. The resulting flour included the beans along with some mesocarp tissue. Although the pods can be chewed fresh off the trees, the beans remain rock hard until thoroughly cooked. The protective casings are waterproof and need to be ruptured prior to boiling. Otherwise, the beans will never soften. Pounding effectively accomplishes this task. Pure mesquite beans have a mild flavor typical of legumes. 

Screwbean mesquite (P. pubescens) pods are substantially different than those of other species, not only in appearance, but also in taste, texture, aroma, and processing dynamics. As the name indicates, the pods are twisted like screws, with tan beans secured in the grooves. Each bean has a protective shell immersed in sticky pulp. The protective shells are weak and readily split open when the pods are pounded, which greatly eases the task of processing. Very little pounding is required to expose the beans. Pounded pods are a mess of tough fibers, paste-like pulp, and broken beans. This mess can simply be boiled and eaten, and the debris can be spit out. Alternatively, the pods can be pounded into powder, and then sifted to remove the larger debris. This yields mesquite bean flour. A drawback of this technique is that a lot of sugar remains bonded to the debris that just got sifted out, and some persistent fiber is almost inevitable. A third processing option is to pound, boil, and filter the pods. This yields a delicious beverage that can be further reduced into mesquite syrup. Filtering is required because boiling won’t soften the fibers. Screwbean mesquite pods cook relatively fast, about 20-30 minutes, and they taste delicious, arguably better than honey mesquite pods. They have a pure sweetness, without any alfalfa-like overtones. Pods can persist on the branch tips for several years or fall shortly after maturity. Even after hanging on the trees for years, the pods retain a sweet, nutty, wholesome flavor. Each pod contains 10-30 tan beans. Harvest yields vary significantly from year to year, and good yields generally succumb to insects and diseases. The extent of infestation is discouraging. Screwbean mesquites are well armed with vicious thorns. Climbing the trees to reach the pods would not be wise without serious protection. Knocking the pods down with a long stick is often ineffective because the pods tend to be securely attached. Screwbean mesquites grow abundantly along the Colorado, Gila, Pecos, and Rio Grande rivers up to about 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) elevation, but they generally lack the widespread distribution of other species.

IDENTIFICATION: The Prosopis genus is represented by 3 species in the United States, all of which occur in the Southwest. Additional varieties are often recognized and treated as species. Mesquites are part of the mimosa subfamily, which is characterized by regular flowers bearing long stamens.

Description of honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa): FORM spiny shrub or tree; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; leaflets numerous and more than 15 mm long; surfaces hairless; stipular spines 2 and usually straight; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like racemes; petals 5, yellow; pistils 1; stamens not more than 10; anthers gland-tipped; FRUITS legumes flat, not prickly, and not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT deserts and foothills; southern California to Texas; blooming primarily in late spring, but potentially anytime.

Description of screwbean mesquite (Prosopis pubescens): FORM spiny shrub or tree; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; leaflets numerous; stipular spines 2 and usually straight; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like racemes; petals 5, yellow; pistils 1; stamens not more than 10; anthers gland-tipped; FRUITS legumes coiled and not prickly; HABITAT major rivers, washes, and springs; southern California and Nevada, eastward to southern Texas; blooming primarily in late spring, but potentially anytime.

Description of velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina): FORM spiny shrub or tree; LEAVES alternate; compound; even bi-pinnate; leaflets numerous and less than 15 mm long; surfaces finely hairy; stipular spines 2 and usually straight; FLOWERS regular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like racemes; petals 5, yellow; pistils 1; stamens not more than 10; anthers gland-tipped; FRUITS legumes flat, not prickly, and not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT deserts and foothills; primarily in Arizona, and to a lesser extent in New Mexico and California; blooming primarily in late spring, but potentially anytime.

REFERENCES: #1 honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa): flowers Ebeling (p. 835); immature pods, mature pods, and seeds Moerman (p. 195). #2 western honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana): flowers Ebeling (835); immature pods, mature pods, and seeds Hodgson (pp. 178-189). #3 screwbean mesquite (Prosopis pubescens): sap (gum) Hodgson (pp. 178-189); flowers Ebeling (835); immature pods, mature pods, and seeds Couplan (pp. 241-242). #4 velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina): sap (gum) Castetter (1935-b p. 28) and Hodgson (pp. 178-189); flowers Hodgson (pp. 178-189); immature pods, mature pods, and seeds Couplan (pp. 241-242).

Scurfpeas

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Psoralidium genus.

SPECIES: #1 dune or lemon scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum (Pursh) Rydb. = Psoralea lanceolata Pursh). #2 slimflower scurfpea (Psoralidium tenuiflorum (Pursh) Rydb. = Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Roots of species listed above are edible. Other parts of these plants are not reported to be edible. Scurfpeas tend to produce scraggly roots, while closely related plants called breadroots (of the Pediomelum genus) generally produce more substantial roots. All species listed above are native to central and western North America, but none of them amounted to much importance as food for Native Americans.

Dune scurfpea (P. lanceolatum) roots are essentially wood, but they make an excellent seasoning for soups and stews. Broth made by simmering the roots is sweet, starchy, flavorful, and almost candy-like. No harsh accents compromise the broth. The unique flavor is perfect for that secret ingredient in culinary endeavors. Cooking does little to soften the roots. Acquiring dune scurfpea roots is fairly easy. Freshly dug roots are white with light-brown skins. Removing the skins is recommended to improve the flavor. Dune scurfpea is common throughout the Canyonlands of Utah and Arizona, where it becomes available to foragers in late spring and summer.

Slimflower scurfpea (P. tenuiflorum) roots are white with brown skins. Peeling the skins is unnecessary, but it improves the flavor to some extent. The roots are surprisingly sweet, but disappointingly small, averaging 4-7 mm thick by 70-120 mm long. Despite their mediocre size, they are packed with flavor. If enough roots can be found, they make an excellent bullion for imparting flavor, color, and distinction to soups and stews. No amount of cooking adequately softens the woody texture, but the roots are nevertheless pleasant to gnaw. The flavor is a hearty combination of potatoes, licorice, and a sweetness unique to scurfpeas. The matching aroma is equally appealing. Slimflower scurfpea is a fine resource, but it’s not common enough to be of much value to foragers.

NOTES: Very little information exists on the various scurfpeas, so hopefully the field notes above provide some insight to these long forgotten wild foods. Despite the names, seeds (peas) of scurfpeas are not reported to be edible. Only the roots are edible. Occasionally, I try parts of plants that are not reported to be edible, but this is a dangerous endeavor in the bean family, so I only tried the parts known to be edible. All the samples were based on plants more than one year old, which could easily explain the overly firm texture of the roots. No young plants were available for comparison. If the root texture was softer, scurfpeas would be an excellent wild food. Perhaps roots of other scurfpea populations are softer than the ones I found, or perhaps they all tend to be firm. Related plants called breadroots (of the Pediomelum genus) produced softer and larger roots. Both taste equally good, but breadroots seem to be the superior plants. In the vicinity of Big Water in southern Utah, I found a third species called rush scurfpea or rush lemonweed (P. junceum). It’s a rare species of the Lake Powell region that’s not reported to be edible. For these reasons, I did not sample any parts. Rush scurfpea differs from the others by having upper leaves reduced to scales and seedpods covered with fine, white, silky hairs. Dune and slimflower scurfpeas are much more common and definitely worth further investigation.

IDENTIFICATION: Currently, there are 3 species of the Psoralidium genus (scurfpeas) and about 20 of the closely related Pediomelum genus (breadroots) found in the United States. Most species are native to arid regions. Compared to breadroots, scurfpeas are taller plants with leaves occurring along the stems and fruits extending well beyond the calyces. Both have gland-dotted palmate leaves, but scurfpeas usually have only 3 leaflets rather than the 5 normally seen in breadroots. The gland-dotted leaves are distinctive. Leaves of similar-looking plants in the bean family generally lack this feature.

Description of dune scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum): FORM upright, perennial plant about 15-65 cm tall emerging from a rhizome; STEMS well developed; LEAVES alternate along the stems; compound; palmate; stipules conspicuous; leaflets usually 3, linear, lanceolate, or oblong; surfaces dotted with resinous glands; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like racemes; corollas white and/or bluish-purple, often bi-colored; pistils 1; styles curved; stigmas head-like; stamens 10, diadelphous; FRUITS legumes elliptical, beaked, hairless, not prickly, not segmented, usually not surrounded by persistent calyces, and usually not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT fields and open areas throughout the West; blooming in spring or summer.

Description of slimflower scurfpea (Psoralidium tenuiflorum): FORM upright, perennial plant about 40-120 cm tall emerging from a thick rootstock; STEMS well developed; LEAVES alternate along the stems; compound; palmate; stipules conspicuous; leaflets usually 3 and wedge-shaped; surfaces dotted with resinous glands; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and arranged in spike-like racemes; corollas light to deep pinkish-bluish-purple, usually one-colored; pistils 1; styles curved; stigmas head-like; stamens 10, diadelphous; FRUITS legumes elliptical, beaked, hairless, not prickly, not segmented, usually not surrounded by persistent calyces, and usually not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT fields; primarily of the Great Plains, westward to Arizona and Utah; blooming in spring or summer.

REFERENCES: #1 dune scurfpea (Psoralidium lanceolatum = Psoralea lanceolata): roots Couplan (p. 265). #2 slimflower scurfpea (Psoralidium tenuiflorum = Psoralea tenuiflora): roots Couplan (p. 265).

Dyebushes and Smokebushes

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Psorothamnus genus.

SPECIES: #1 Emory’s dyebush or white dalea (Psorothamnus emoryi (A. Gray) Rydb. = Dalea emoryi A. Gray). #2 Nevada smokebush or Nevada dalea (Psorothamnus polydenius (Torr. ex S. Watson) Rydb. var. polydenius = Dalea polydenia Torr. ex S. Watson).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Seeds of species listed above are reported to be edible.

NOTES: None of the Emory’s dyebush and Nevada smokebush colonies I observed during the fieldwork conducted for this reference produced a quantity of seeds sufficient enough to merit documentation. Seeds were either not produced or disappeared as fast as they were produced. Two other species of the genus that are not reported to be edible had a similar problem, so seed production in this genus appears to be temperamental. Shrubs in the Southwest often require higher than average rainfall to produce seeds, so the meager seed production of Emory’s dyebush and Nevada smokebush is not unusual. As the name smokebush suggests, Native Americans added the fragrant flowers of Nevada smokebush to tobacco mixtures (Rhode pp. 55-56).

IDENTIFICATION: About 10 species of the Psorothamnus genus are currently found in the United States, most of which occur in the Southwest.

Description of Emory’s dyebush (Psorothamnus emoryi): FORM small shrub; stems, leaves, and sepals hairy and dotted with resinous glands; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate with 5-9 tiny leaflets; the terminal leaflet longer than lateral leaflets; stipules small and deciduous; FLOWERS irregular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like clusters terminating the stems; pedicels lacking bractlets; calyces bell-shaped and 5-toothed; petals 5, free, white and purple, attached to rim of hypanthium, and not attached to the stamen column; stamens 9 or 10, monadelphous; FRUITS pods plump, egg-shaped, 2-4 mm long, 1-seeded, gland-dotted, lacking prickles, and not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT dunes, deserts, and washes; below 700 meters (2,000 feet) elevation; southern California and southwestern Arizona; blooming March to May.

Description of Nevada smokebush (Psorothamnus polydenius): FORM shrub; stems, leaves, and sepals dotted with resinous glands and often hairy; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate with 7-13 tiny leaflets; the terminal leaflet about equal to the lateral leaflets; stipules small and deciduous; FLOWERS irregular, perfect, ovary superior, and arranged in head-like or slightly elongated clusters terminating the stems; pedicels lacking bractlets; calyces bell-shaped and 5-toothed; petals 5, free, attached to rim of hypanthium, and not attached to the stamen column; wing and keel petals pinkish-purple; banner petals golden; stamens 9 or 10, monadelphous; FRUITS pods plump, egg-shaped, 2-4 mm long, 1-seeded, gland-dotted, lacking prickles, and not splitting open at maturity; HABITAT sand, gravel, deserts, foothills, valleys, dry washes; eastern California and most of Nevada; blooming June to September.

REFERENCES: #1 Emory’s dyebush (Psorothamnus emoryi = Dalea emoryi): seeds Couplan (p. 251). #2 Nevada smokebush (Psorothamnus polydenius var. polydenius = Dalea polydenia): seeds Rhode (pp. 55-56).

Locust Trees

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Robinia genus.

SPECIES: #1 New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana A. Gray). #2 black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! NO PARTS OF LOCUST TREES SHOULD BE CONSUMED RAW! Locust trees contain a variety of toxins capable of causing stomach pain, digestive distress, nausea, weak pulse, irregular heartbeat, immune system disorders, severe tissue damage, and potentially deadly blood clots. Although boiling can reduce some of the toxins, other toxins may persist, so whether or not the various parts can be rendered safe is uncertain. The chemistry of locust trees is complicated and scientists don’t fully understand the complexities at this point in time. Some of the harmful compounds include: lectins, robinin, phasine, and canavanine. At best, the various parts of locust trees have questionable edibility. At worst, they could cause hospitalization or even death. The flowers are considered to be the safest part, and they absolutely must be cooked, preferably boiled or fried. Locust flowers are a controversial wild food, and other parts are even more controversial. References to their edibility contradict each other. Some say that all the parts are toxic. Others say that certain parts (usually the flowers) are edible raw or cooked. These inconsistencies only add to the uncertainty of using locust trees as food, so caution is strongly advised.

References cited below for black locust (R. pseudoacacia) indicate that the flowers, young fruits, and seeds (beans) are edible after thorough cooking. References for New Mexico locust (R. neomexicana) are primarily for the flowers, except for a few that indicate the young pods were eaten by Native Americans mainly to prevent shortages of more preferable foods during the winter months. Since black locust is primarily a tree of the eastern United States, only New Mexico locust is represented here.

Flowers of New Mexico locust hang in showy clusters that radiate an appealing fragrance. Clusters are loosely attached to the trees. Obtaining enough for a meal is reasonably easy when the clusters are within reach. Climbing the trees to reach the clusters would be terribly difficult due to the abundance of imposing spines. Flowers normally bloom from May to July. Fresh flowers are delicious. Nothing about the flavor indicates the presence of anything harmful, but these flowers should be cooked. Entire flower clusters can be tossed into a stewpot. Separating preferable parts (corollas, pistils, and stamens) from the clusters is wise. Corollas easily pull away from calyces, except when they first emerge from the buds. Wing and banner petals vary from pink to purple. Keel petals opt for cream with a green tint. Boiling converts all the color variations to a uniform translucent green. The simmering aroma suggests a hearty meal of green peas. All parts are tender, even the pedicels. No harsh flavors or irritating textures are present. Bugs are minimal compared to populations on most wild flowers. Overall, New Mexico locust flowers seem to be an excellent resource, but caution is advised.

Young seedpods of New Mexico locust easily qualify as palatable, but they may be harmful. When eaten fresh—they should never be eaten fresh—young pods taste bitter, astringent, slightly fruity, and similar to string beans. Hairs on the pods can be short, long, soft, bristly, or glandular. Pods can also be hairless. Hairs don’t seem to pose any problems. Boiling softens the pods, reduces the bitter astringency, and highlights the string bean flavor. Some astringency may persist after boiling. The cooking water soon acquires a pond-scum appearance. All parts of the pods are tender, even the tips, margins, and stalks. Gathering the pods is easy. Clusters of them develop sometime in summer or early autumn. New Mexico locust pods appear to be suitable as cooked vegetables, but they may be toxic. Consumption is not recommended.

Mature seeds (beans) of New Mexico locust are not reported to be edible and are extremely toxic if consumed raw. DO NOT EAT THESE BEANS RAW! A closely related species of the eastern United States called black locust (R. pseudoacacia) has edible beans, but this doesn’t mean that beans of other species are edible, even when those species are virtually identical. Based on flavor, New Mexico locust beans would seem like an excellent wild food, but they contain a number of formidable toxins. Cooking is required and may not fully inactivate the toxins. Mature beans are small, firm, and brown with black speckles. They cook fast compared to ordinary beans, so pre-soaking them is unnecessary. About 20 minutes of boiling changes the color to olive green and softens the texture to the consistency of canned beans. New Mexico locust beans taste equivalent to commercially grown white beans, though not quite as good. The flavor is mild and the texture is smooth. No unappealing aspects of any kind are hereby noted. Gathering and processing a supply is easy. About 3-8 beans occur in each pod, and the pods occur in clusters at the tips of spiny branches. Mature pods are thin, dry, brown, and papery. They split open naturally, but remain on the trees well into autumn. A good percentage of healthy beans remain attached inside the pods. A number of beans often fail to develop properly, but damage caused by insects and diseases is minimal. Unhealthy beans need to be separated by hand. Consumption of New Mexico locust beans is not recommended.

NOTES: In the Southwest, black locust (R. pseudoacacia) is primarily a landscaping tree found in small towns and cities. Only New Mexico locust (R. neomexicana) is well established in the wild, so the field notes were based on this species. Notes on the seeds were based specifically on the rusbyi variety from southwestern New Mexico. Considering all the dire warnings about locust trees, I was expecting the various parts to taste awful, but taste is definitely not the problem. In 1936, in reference to the Apache Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, Edward Castetter wrote, “In the fall of the year the pods of the New Mexican locust (Robinia neomexicana) were occasionally eaten raw. However, they were more often cooked, stored, and utilized similarly to those of the mesquite. The large clusters of pink flowers were gathered in late June, boiled, and eaten as a vegetable; or they might be stored in bags, and when wanted, re-cooked.” Subsequent references often refer to this one, either directly or indirectly.

IDENTIFICATION: The Robinia genus is represented by 4 species in the United States, plus a few hybrids. Only 2 species are found in the Southwest. Differences lie in the type and amount of hair on the seedpods, but these differences are inconsistent in the wild.

Description of New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana): FORM spiny shrub or tree; LEAVES alternate; compound; odd pinnate; leaflets 9-19, elliptic; margins smooth; tips pointed (mucronate); surfaces hairless or finely hairy (puberulent); stipules often spine-like; stipels present; FLOWERS perfect, irregular, showy, butterfly-like, ovary superior, fragrant, and arranged in dense clusters (racemes); stalks and branches of the clusters densely sticky-bristly (glandular-setose); calyces 5-lobed; corollas pinkish-purple; stamens 10, diadelphous; FRUITS legumes flat, linear, and 3-17 cm long; surfaces smooth-tacky (var. rusbyi) or sticky-bristly (var. neomexicana); HABITAT mountain woodlands and canyons; primarily of Arizona and New Mexico; blooming May to July. NOTES: White-flowered trees with silky-nonsticky hairs are black locust (R. pseudoacacia) found primarily in the eastern United States, or around towns and cities in the Southwest.

REFERENCES: #1 New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana): flowers Brill (pp. 42-43), Couplan (pp. 266-267), Moerman (p. 221), and Tull (1987 p. 84); young pods Castetter (1936 p. 42) and Moerman (p. 221). #2 black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia): flowers, young pods, and seeds Chmielewski (p. 44), Couplan (pp. 266-267), Facciola (p. 110), and Rayner (p. 114). References to toxicity: Burrows (p. 597), Gupta (p. 1089), Knight (p. 125), and Turner (1991 pp. 148-149).

Clovers

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Trifolium genus.

SPECIES: #1 alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum L.). #2 red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). #3 white clover (Trifolium repens L.). #4 cow clover (Trifolium wormskioldii Lehm.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! Clovers may contain harmful compounds including: nitrates, slaframine, linamarin, lotaustralin, phytoestrogens, and saponins. Healthy parts are safe to eat in moderation, but wilted or discolored parts should never be eaten. Numerous diseases affect clovers, so gathering healthy plants is very important. Problems associated with clovers occur primarily in livestock that graze excessive amounts of these plants over a period of time. Humans consuming small amounts of healthy clovers are unlikely to experience any adverse effects, but moderate or larger amounts should be cooked.

Leaves, flowers, and seeds of all species listed above are edible. In addition, the rhizomes of cow clover (T. wormskioldii) are edible. Leaves and flowers can be eaten fresh or cooked, but large servings may be difficult to digest when eaten fresh. Cooking the various parts adds a degree of safety. All species of the Trifolium genus can probably be used in the same way, but confirmation of this statement was not possible. Clovers were utilized as food by Native Americans primarily in the western United States, especially California, Oregon, and Washington. Apparently, they were seldom used in the eastern or southwestern states, or records of that usage are scarce. Of the four species listed above, only cow clover is native to North America. The others are native to Europe and Asia. Based on the species sampled for this reference (see notes below), clovers produce fairly good leaves, and only minor differences occur in the flavor, texture, and aroma. Leaves of related plants called medics (Medicago) and sweetclovers (Melilotus) taste inferior. Fresh clover leaves range in flavor from mild to slightly bitter to slightly acrid. A soapy accent may be present in some species. Leaves are generally suitable for salads, and definitely suitable as potherbs. Spiny teeth on the margins pose no problems. Boiling the leaves produces an emerald-green broth that’s ideal for soup. Flower heads can also be tossed into the soup, but they tend to be chewy. Clover flower tea is delicious and perfect for any occasion. Clover seeds can be prepared as mush or sprouted like alfalfa sprouts. Clovers thrive in mountain meadows, but grazing animals rely on these plants, so competition can be expected. Clovers are considered prime forage. Gathering a supply may take a while because each plant only bears a few leaves and flower heads. Some species have tough stems that are best removed. Clovers can be found throughout much of the year, but they’re best gathered when young and healthy, unless the seeds of older plants are being gathered. Overall, clovers are a decent wild food.

NOTES: Several species of clovers were assessed during the fieldwork conducted for this reference including: alpine clover (Trifolium dasyphyllum), hollyleaf clover (T. gymnocarpon), alsike clover (T. hybridum), King’s clover (T. kingii), longstalk clover (T. longipes), woodland clover (T. pinetorum), red clover (T. pratense), and white clover (T. repens). Leaves of all these species had a very similar taste, texture, and aroma, except that some tasted slightly milder than others. Leaves of other southwestern clovers presumably have similar aspects.

IDENTIFICATION: About 90 species of the Trifolium genus are found in the United States, of which about 20 occur in the Southwest. Clovers, sweetclovers, and medics (Trifolium, Melilotus, and Medicago) form a group within the bean family marked by trifoliate leaves with the veins extending beyond the margins to form short teeth. This feature separates these genera from all other southwestern members of the bean family.

Description of clovers (the Trifolium genus): FORM small plants; LEAVES alternate; palmately compound; leaflets 3, or up to 7 in a few species; margins finely toothed; surfaces not gland-dotted; stipules conspicuous; tendrils absent; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, ovary superior, and commonly arranged in rounded heads or dense racemes arising from the axils or terminals; the clusters often subtended by involucres; calyces 5-cleft; corollas white, orange, yellow, pink, red, or purple, or other colors; stamens 10, diadelphous (9 united and 1 free); anthers all similar; FRUITS legumes thin, 1-8 seeded, often hidden among the persistent petals, and not spirally coiled; HABITAT diverse, generally preferring fields, hillsides, and mountain meadows; blooming spring to autumn.

REFERENCES: #1 alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum): leaves, flowers, and seeds Peterson (p. 124). #2 red clover (Trifolium pratense): leaves, flowers, and seeds Couplan (pp. 269-270) and Peterson (p. 124); sprouted seeds Facciola (p. 111). #3 white clover (Trifolium repens): leaves, flowers, and seeds Couplan (pp. 269-270) and Peterson (p. 56). #4 cow clover (Trifolium wormskioldii): rhizomes, leaves, and flowers (pp. 257-258); seeds Couplan (pp. 269-270).

American Vetch

FAMILY: Bean family (Fabaceae) – Vicia genus.

SPECIES: American vetch (Vicia americana Muhl. ex Willd.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Warning! American vetch contains toxins (neurolathyrogens, vicine, beta-cyano-L-alanine, and others) that can damage red blood cells, adversely affect the nervous system, cause pain, weakness, or seizures, or in extreme cases paralyze the legs. Boiling greatly reduces these toxins, but complete removal is not possible (Burrows p. 627 and Deshpande pp. 345-347). Due to the insidious nature of these toxins, American vetch should only be eaten in small amounts after thorough cooking.

American vetch (V. americana) is native to most of North America, except for the southeastern part. Although the shoots, leaves, pods, and seeds were eaten by a few groups of Native Americans, these parts were only minor sources of food. All of these parts must be cooked. Even then, they are unsafe and difficult to digest. Other vetches found in the Southwest are not reported to be edible. American vetch has pinnate leaves that taste mild, agreeable, and similar to garden peas. The flavor is free of acrid, bitter, soapy, foul, and perfume-like accents. The rachises (stem-like axes where all the leaves attach) are tough and chewy. After enough chewing, they eventually break apart. Removing them is a better option than chewing them, but since they don’t have any splinter-like fibers, either option works. Boiling the leaves yields a decent broth, but has little effect upon the rachises. Flowers of American vetch are purple and have an attractive perfume-like fragrance. Withering flowers often fade to blue. All flower parts are reasonably tender, but the supporting structures are tough. Boiled flowers taste pleasant, agreeable, and similar to garden peas. No perfume-like overtones are apparent. Boiled pods taste likewise. Pods should be gathered in the green stage prior to maturity because mature pods are dry, papery, and unsuitable for consumption. Developing pods are merely skins covering seeds. Moist flesh is almost nonexistent, and the pods are small, only averaging about 2-3 cm long. Gathering the pods or the seeds requires proper timing, or the chance will be lost. Fully mature pods split open to release the seeds. Each pod contains 4-7 seeds. American vetch blooms from May to August, and seeds mature about 1-2 months after the flowers wither. Overall, American vetch is a questionable wild food that should be approached with caution.

NOTES: I gathered and prepared American vetch on several occasions, mostly from central and southern Utah. Several colonies I found disappeared as fast as I found them due to hungry animals. American vetch provides good forage for grazing animals, so you can expect some competition for this wild food. From a survivalist’s perspective, hunting the animals that graze American vetch makes better sense than hunting the plant. Colonies of American vetch are a sign of good hunting grounds. References to the edibility of this plant are rather scarce and heavily laden with dire warnings, so I was reluctant to try it. Back in 1935, Edward Castetter wrote, “The black seeds of the vetch, Vicia americana, known to the Acoma and Laguna as wishikana and kamashika wawa (spider medicine), are eaten; while the Cochiti use the entire pods of this species, their name for it being wayashow shikurina (duck peas).” Even earlier in 1902, in reference to use of this plant by the Yuki Indians of California, Victor Chestnut wrote, “It makes very good fodder, and, when young, is often cooked and eaten for greens by various tribes.” Subsequent authors often refer to these sources, either directly or indirectly. Based on flavor, the various parts of American vetch are good wild foods, but a forager needs to consider more than just flavor when evaluating a potential meal. I tried all the parts of American vetch, except for the seeds. None of the plants lived long enough to produce seeds for the reasons mentioned above, so I can say with legitimacy, “the cow ate my homework!” Although the dog never ate my homework back in grade school, my experiences in the wild seem to vindicate this age-old excuse for such missing items!

IDENTIFICATION: About 25-30 species of the Vicia genus are found in the United States, of which about 5 occur in the Southwest. Recognizing the Vicia genus is easy, but identifying the species is more challenging. Vetches are vine-like plants with tendrils. Very few members of the bean family have pinnate leaves with tendrils. Leaves of locoweeds (Astragalus) look similar, but they lack tendrils. Compared to peavines (Lathyrus), vetches usually have more leaves and styles encircled by tufts of hairs toward the tips. American vetch is easily distinguished from other species by its large flowers. A number of forms are recognized based on leaf shapes and hair features.

Description of American vetch (Vicia americana): FORM spineless, native, perennial, vine-like plant about 3-10 dm tall; often sprawling or climbing; LEAVES alternate; compound; even pinnate; leaflets 6-18, elliptic, oblong, or linear; surfaces hairless or finely hairy and lacking glandular dots; stipules large and conspicuous; stipels absent; tips of leafstalks extending into simple or forked tendrils; FLOWERS perfect, butterfly-like, showy, ovary superior, and arranged in racemes bearing 4-9 flowers, often along one side (secund); peduncles well developed; pedicels attached to corners rather than sides of calyces; teeth of calyces uneven; corollas 12-24 mm long, bluish-purple; styles rounded in cross section and with tufts of hairs encircling the tips; stamens diadelphous; FRUITS legumes flat, narrow, pointed, papery, 25-35 mm long by 5-8 mm wide, and splitting open at maturity; HABITAT oak, juniper, pine, and aspen woodlands, mountain meadows, fields, and other habitats; throughout the West; blooming May to August.

REFERENCES: American vetch (Vicia americana): young plant (as greens) Chestnut (pp. 362-363); young shoots Couplan (pp. 270-271); leaves Ebeling (p. 241); immature pods Castetter (1935-a p. 32); seeds Castetter (1935-a p. 32) and Moerman (p. 272).