Poaceae

Grass Family

FAMILY OVERVIEW: The grass family (Poaceae) is the safest and most successful plant family on Earth. All grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245), but they can be infested with dangerous molds that render them toxic, so always harvest healthy-looking parts. The best parts are usually the stem bases or the grains. A few species contain cyanogenic glycosides, but boiling can mitigate this issue. Some grasses are much easier to harvest and process than others. Grasses can be utilized at any age, but maximum nutritional value occurs at maturity. Scientifically, grains are called caryopses, which are dry, one-seeded fruits where the fruit walls (pericarps) are bonded to the seeds. Few people would consider grains to be fruits, but from a botanical perspective, grains are indeed fruits. Grains range in size from nearly microscopic to about the size of those in cultivated grasses. They’re often embedded in multiple layers of dangerous chaff. Removing the chaff can be extraordinarily easy or nearly impossible. A few grasses produce edible roots, stems, and leaves. These parts often contain sharp fibers that present a choking hazard. Nutrients can be extracted by boiling the fibrous parts and filtering out the debris. This technique is useful for making beverages and syrups out of immature grasses. Developing grains normally pass through a “milk stage” prior to maturity. In this stage, the interiors look milky. Eventually, they harden into the familiar grains of cultivation. Grasses prefer land, except for a few species adapted to shallow water. Only a fraction of the hundreds of southwestern grasses were assessed during the fieldwork conducted for this reference. Some of the more important ones are discussed below or otherwise emphasized. Others can be used similarly. A complete list of grasses that were utilized as food by Native Americans would include almost all grasses. As a general guideline, if the grains can be obtained, the grains are good to eat. Of course, this assumes that the grains are free of molds and diseases.

IDENTIFICATION: Grasses typically have: hollow stems that are round in cross section; 2-ranked leaves with split leaf sheaths; flowers lacking sepals or petals; 3 stamens; 2 feathery stigmas; and rounded, 1-seeded, grain-like fruit structures called caryopses.

GRASSES, RUSHES, SEDGES: So is it a grass, rush, or sedge? Although many exceptions could be noted, the following generalizations are offered to assist with identifying grass-like plants. A common rhyme goes something like, “sedges have edges; rushes are round; grasses are hollow on the land they are found.” Grasses typically prefer land, while rushes and sedges prefer shallow water. All three have narrow leaves with parallel veins, and all three produce flowers. Grass flowers are perfect, meaning they have male and female parts (stamens and pistils). A single grass flower is called a spikelet. Each spikelet may consist of 1 or more florets. Instead of petals and sepals, grasses have scale-like lemmas and paleas. Each floret has 1 lemma and 1 palea surrounding 1 pistil with 2 feathery stigmas and 3 stamens. A spikelet with more than one floret can be thought of as a compound flower. Each spikelet is subtended by 2 bract-like glumes that often look like the lemmas and paleas. Menacing awns often adorn these parts. Sedges (Cyperaceae) often have scales, hairs, or bristles representing the petals and sepals. Rush flowers (Juncaceae) are more like rudimentary lily flowers, consisting of 6 tepals (in 2 whorls of 3) representing the petals and sepals. Rush fruits are capsules that contain many seeds and split apart at maturity. Grass and sedge fruits are one-seeded. Stems and leaves can differentiate grasses and sedges. Grasses have hollow stems and 2-ranked leaves. Sedges have solid (sponge-like) stems and 3-ranked leaves. As applied in botany, ranked means aligned in a vertical row. Although some common sedges have round stems, many of them have triangular or bluntly triangular stems. Identifying grasses is a difficult task. Fortunately, it’s not one that foragers need to be concerned about because all grasses are edible.

Indian Ricegrass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Achnatherum genus.

SPECIES: Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.) Barkworth = Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.) Ricker = Stipa hymenoides Roem. & Schult.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Indian ricegrass (A. hymenoides) was a principal food source for Native Americans living in the Southwest and Great Basin. It has a unique appearance that’s easy to recognize. The grains are nutritious, delicious, relatively large, and fairly high in protein. They mature early, usually by late spring. Afterward, the grasses dry out and remain brown for the rest of the year. Tiny leaf blades emerge once again to begin another life cycle late in the following winter, long before most native grasses would dare to brave the elements. Young leaf blades can be eaten fresh or boiled into a grass-flavored beverage. Grains of Indian ricegrass are more valuable than the leaves, but acquiring a supply of grains requires some effort. Threshing seems to liberate more chaff than grain. Separating the chaff tends to be difficult, but not impossible. Each grain is covered by two, hairy, close fitting, securely attached scales. The grains taste mild and have a bran-like texture. Indian ricegrass can be found in sandy soils throughout the Southwest and Great Basin.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides): seeds Couplan (p. 478), Ebeling (p. 810), and Moerman (pp. 168-169).

Short-awn Foxtail

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Alopecurus genus.

SPECIES: Short-awn or orange foxtail (Alopecurus aequalis Sobol.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible, but the extent to which they were utilized as food by Native Americans is unclear. Short-awn foxtail prefers cool, water-saturated habitats such as the margins of lakes. It’s found throughout the northern hemisphere and considered a serious weed in cultivated fields, especially rice fields. The name orange foxtail refers to its orange anthers, while the name short-awn foxtail refers to its short awns that average 0.7 to 2.5 mm long. This grass is considered good forage for grazing animals, but it’s not very common in the wild. It blooms from June to August, so grains can be expected from August to October, or possibly later in warmer climates.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Short-awn foxtail (Alopecurus aequalis): seeds Ebeling (p. 808).

Giant Reed

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Arundo genus.

SPECIES: Giant reed (Arundo donax L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The young shoots and grains are edible. Since giant reed rarely produces viable seeds, gathering young shoots may be the only option available to foragers. Giant reed tends to grow along watercourses and spreads by producing rhizomes. Floodwaters distribute pieces of rhizomes to new locations where they establish new colonies. Since the rhizomes tend to be woody, they’re usually unsuitable to use as food. Even young shoots can be woody. Giant reed is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and considered invasive on most other continents. In North America, it grows across the southern United States, into Mexico, and southward. Based on the young shoots sampled for this reference, the flavor is excellent, but the texture is very tough. Boiling didn’t adequately soften the texture, but it did produce a fantastic broth/beverage. Attempts to procure a supply of seeds proved unsuccessful even after checking hundreds of seed heads throughout autumn.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Giant reed (Arundo donax): shoots Duke (pp. 38-39) and Tull (2013 p. 124); seeds Couplan (p. 467), Ebeling (p. 808), Olsen (p. 103), and Tull (2013 p. 124).

Wild Oats

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Avena genus.

SPECIES: Wild oats (Avena fatua L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Wild oats (Avena fatua) are roughly equivalent to cultivated oats in size, taste, texture, aroma, and nutritional composition. Just be sure to remove the awns! Wild oats are tan, hairy, and enclosed by black chaff bearing long, sharp, distinctively bent awns. Tufts of hairs attached to the grains are weak and harmless, but they give the grains a furry feeling and they can irritate your throat. Uncooked wild oats can be firm, crunchy, or hard. Cooking is a wise precaution because grains often host harmful molds or diseases. Grains with visible signs of molds or diseases should obviously never be gathered. Winnowing wild oats is a tedious process. An easier option is to make “oat milk.” This is done by pounding and then boiling whole spikelets. Pieces of broken awns, husks, and hairs must be filtered as a final step. Pouring the oat milk through a few layers of fine cloth effectively filters out this unwanted debris. Oat milk is more like oat-flavored water than milk, but the flavor is delicious. Thoroughly pounding the oats prior to boiling facilitates the release of carbohydrates, resulting in a more flavorful beverage. Reducing the volume of water by prolonged boiling concentrates, thickens, and sweetens the oat milk. Wild oats are easy to recognize. At harvest time, they turn light brown, dry out, and proudly display their formidable black awns. Color features have a striking contrast that’s clearly visible from a distance. Wild oats become available from late spring to early summer. Strong winds disperse the grains, but enough for a meal usually remain available for a while. Wild oats are abundant in the Southwest and classified as noxious weeds.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Wild oats (Avena fatua): seeds Couplan (p. 468), Duke (pp. 44-45), and Ebeling (p. 808).

American Sloughgrass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Beckmannia genus.

SPECIES: American sloughgrass (Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fernald).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. American sloughgrass grows in marshes, ditches, shallow lakes, and other wet habitats primarily from northern California to northern New Mexico to Minnesota and northward of these states into Canada. It blooms from July to August, so grains can be expected from September until the growing season ends. Merritt Fernald (p. 98) describes the grains as small, abundant, free from the husks, and among those gathered by natives of the northwestern United States, and Frank Tozer (p. 227) indicates that the cleaned grains can be prepared like those of wild rice.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). American sloughgrass (Beckmannia syzigachne): seeds Couplan (p. 469), Fernald (p. 98), Moerman (p. 64), and Tozer (p. 227).

Grama Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Bouteloua genus.

SPECIES: Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis (Willd. ex Kunth) Lag. ex Griffiths).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Blue grama grains, and possibly those of other species, were gathered and made into porridge by Native Americans in the southwestern United States. Based on the species sampled for this reference (those described below), separating the grains from the chaff was difficult, but the reward was worth the effort. Blue grama appears to be the species most often utilized as food, or perhaps it’s simply represented better in ethnobotanical literature. Grama grasses are fairly easy to recognize. They often look like toothbrushes. Most species can produce 2-3 crops per year, but they’re primarily summer annuals of dry habitats that produce grains in autumn.

Six-weeks grama (B. barbata) produces tiny, rice-shaped, golden-brown grains primarily from August to November. Winnowing is best done on days without too much wind. Otherwise, the grains blow away with the chaff. Grain characteristics are similar to those of blue grama grains described below. Six-weeks grama is found in dry habitats throughout much of the Southwest, especially the southern half.

Blue grama (B. gracilis) produces rice-shaped grains in a variety of colors ranging from yellowish-brown to olive-brown. Grains are produced abundantly primarily from August to November, but separating the chaff is tedious. If the chaff became brittle at maturity instead of remaining flexible, it would readily crumble, blow away, and simplify the chore of processing. Freshly harvested grains are delicate. They can be toasted into a fantastic meal in mere seconds. Care should be taken to avoid scorching. The grains crackle when toasted, but they don’t pop like popcorn. Boiling is equally expedient. About 5-10 minutes softens the grains. The flavor, whether toasted or boiled, is similar to whole grain barley. It’s very appealing. Harvesting the grains is reasonably easy, but time consuming because only a few grains are found on each plant. Blue grama grows from Texas to California and northward to Montana and Minnesota.

Side-oats grama (B. curtipendula) produces golden-brown grains that resemble oats. The grains are small, packaged within several layers of annoying chaff, and barely worth the effort of harvesting and processing. Mature spikelets turn light brown, dry out, and drop off the stems. Spikelets appearing moist and green are not ready to harvest. Preparing side-oats grama as a beverage is easier than separating the grains and chaff. This beverage can be prepared by: pounding the spikelets, brewing the mess for about 30 minutes, and filtering out the debris. Side-oats grama grows abundantly nearly throughout the central and southwestern United States.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis): seeds Moerman (p. 65) and Reagan (p. 149).

Brome Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Bromus genus.

SPECIES: #1 California brome (Bromus carinatus Hook. & Arn.). #2 ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus Roth ssp. rigidus (Roth) Lainz). #3 mountain brome (Bromus marginatus Nees ex Steud. = Bromus breviaristatus Buckley).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of species listed above were gathered and prepared as mush by Native Americans of California. The following notes are merely general information that foragers may find useful rather than accounts of the represented species.

California brome (B. carinatus) is common throughout most of the western United States from sagebrush valleys to subalpine meadows. It blooms anytime from late May to early August depending on elevation and seasonal growing conditions. At one point in time, grains of California brome were an important resource to Native Americans.

Ripgut brome (B. diandrus) is native to Europe, but it was adopted as a food source by the Karok, Luiseño, and Miwok Indians of California soon after its introduction to North America. It’s a common grass that’s well adapted to the arid Southwest. Flowers bloom from April to June, so seeds can be expected from June to August.

Mountain brome (B. marginatus) is currently treated as a species, but it was formerly treated as a variety of California brome. The features that “distinguish” these species are inconsistent in the wild, even in the same populations (Cronquist volume 6 pp. 187-189). Mountain brome is a slightly taller, hairier, perennial species with shorter awns. Aspects related to edibility, such as taste, texture, range, habitat, and harvest time are probably very similar as well. Mountain brome is native to North America, and it was important to the Mendocino Indians of California.

NOTES: Despite my efforts, essentially no progress was made on the Bromus genus. All the bromes I tried were either not the intended species or the quantities of grains were too small to merit an honest evaluation.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 California brome (Bromus carinatus): seeds Anderson (p. 183), Moerman (p. 66), and Powers (p. 425, cited as Bromus virens). #2 ripgut brome (Bromus diandrus): seeds Anderson (p. 257), Ebeling (p. 808), and Moerman (pp. 66-67). #3 mountain brome (Bromus marginatus = Bromus breviaristatus): seeds Chamberlin (p. 364) and Moerman (p. 67).

Slender Woodreed

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Cinna genus.

SPECIES: Slender, drooping, or broadleaf woodreed (Cinna latifolia (Trevis. ex Goepp.) Griseb.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Slender woodreed is primarily a grass of wet places in the Rocky Mountains. It was listed by Ralph Chamberlin among the many grasses gathered as food by the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada. Slender woodreed blooms from July to August, so grains can be expected from September until cold weather terminates the growing season. In the Southwest, slender woodreed is found in northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, and Utah. Due to its scarcity, it’s not of much value to southwestern foragers.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Slender woodreed (Cinna latifolia): seeds Chamberlin (p. 366, cited as Cinna arundinacea var. pendula).

Bermuda Grass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Cynodon genus.

SPECIES: Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The rhizomes can be dried, ground into flour, roasted, and prepared as tea or coffee. Plant expert Francois Couplan describes the beverage as fairly good and notes that the rhizomes contain sugars. Bermuda grass is better known as a weed in coffee fields than a coffee-like beverage. It’s native to the Mediterranean region and was introduced to North America in the 1700s as a forage crop. It blooms from May to September across the southern United States and spreads aggressively by sending out rhizomes. The rhizomes can be gathered anytime.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon): rhizomes Couplan (p. 470).

Crowfoot Grass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Dactyloctenium genus.

SPECIES: Crowfoot or Egyptian grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains were utilized as food in parts of Africa, where crowfoot grass is native. In the southwestern United States, this tropical grass is limited to warmer areas with adequate water. Since it rarely establishes in the wild, it’s of little value to southwestern foragers.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Crowfoot crass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium): seeds Couplan (pp. 470-471).

Hair Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Deschampsia genus.

SPECIES: #1 tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) P. Beauv.). #2 annual hairgrass (Deschampsia danthonioides (Trin.) Munro).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains of both species listed above are edible. The following notes are merely general information that foragers may find useful.

Tufted hairgrass (D. cespitosa) is found throughout the western and northern United States and northward. Ralph Chamberlin (p. 367) lists it among the grains utilized as food by the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada. In the Southwest, tufted hairgrass is found in moist subalpine meadows and along lakeshores. It blooms from July to September. Grains can be expected in late summer or autumn.

Annual hairgrass (D. danthonioides) is found primarily in the western United States. Daniel Moerman (p. 100) indicates that the Kawaiisu Indians of southern California prepared the grains as porridge. Annual hairgrass is rare in the Southwest, and therefore of little value to southwestern foragers. It blooms from May to July in moist mountain meadows. Grains can be expected from midsummer to early autumn.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa): seeds Chamberlin (p. 367), Ebeling (p. 808), and Moerman (p. 100). #2 annual hairgrass (Deschampsia danthonioides): seeds Ebeling (p. 808) and Moerman (p. 100).

Desert Saltgrass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Distichlis genus.

SPECIES: Desert saltgrass (Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Native Americans utilized desert saltgrass as a source of salt rather than grains. Salt exudes from the stems and soon dries into little pieces that can be gathered. Traditionally, this was done by pulling up the grass, flailing the stems, beating the stems over a basket, and then sifting out the debris. A closely related but much taller species called Palmer’s saltgrass or Indian wheat (D. palmeri) that once grew abundantly along the Colorado River delta was harvested for its grains (Ebeling pp. 415-416).

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Desert saltgrass (Distichlis spicata): stems (as a source of salt) Anderson (pp. 242-243), Ebeling (pp. 415-416), and Moerman (p. 103).

Barnyard Grass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Echinochloa genus.

SPECIES: #1 jungle rice or sawa millet (Echinochloa colona (L.) Link). #2 common barnyard grass or cockspur (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.). #3 rough barnyard grass (Echinochloa muricata (P. Beauv.) Fernald).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains of all species listed above are edible. Historically, these species were important food sources in various parts of the world. Only #3 is native to North America, but Native Americans incorporated species #1 and #2 into their diets once they became available. In ancient times, jungle rice and common barnyard grass were cultivated in Europe, Asia, and Africa (Simoons p. 80). In modern times, domesticated varieties of these species are still cultivated as a source of grains in many countries (Kirk p. 197), but generally on marginal lands that are unsuitable for preferable species. Despite their cultivation in some areas, jungle rice and common barnyard grass are aggressive weeds in other areas. Shoots of these species are also edible.

Jungle rice (E. colona) is a tropical or subtropical species native to southern Asia and northern Africa and considered a weed elsewhere. In the southwestern United States, it’s restricted to suitable habitats, such as ditches, washes, and irrigation canals. It blooms from July to September, so grains can be expected from August to November.

Common barnyard grass (E. crus-galli) is a tropical, subtropical, and temperate species native to southern Asia and northern Africa. Despite its history of domestication and cultivation, it’s now considered one of the most noxious weeds on Earth. Its distribution is nearly worldwide, including the entire United States. It blooms from July to September, so grains can be expected from August to November.

Rough barnyard grass (E. muricata) is a subtropical and temperate species native to North America. Grains of this species were utilized as food by the Paiute Indians of Nevada and the surrounding states. Rough barnyard grass grows throughout the United States and blooms from July to September. Grains can be expected from August to November.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 jungle rice (Echinochloa colona): young plants (Facciola p. 175); shoots Couplan (p. 471); seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #2 common barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli): young plants (Facciola p. 175); seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #3 rough barnyard grass (Echinochloa muricata): seeds Ebeling (p. 809) and Sturtevant (1986 p. 76, specifically the microstachya variety).

Squirreltails

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Elymus and Sitanion genera.

SPECIES: #1 Canadian wildrye (Elymus canadensis L.). #2 bottlebrush squirreltail or western bottlebrush (Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey = Sitanion hystrix (Nutt.) J. G. Sm.). #3 blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus Buckley). #4 big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus (J. G. Sm.) Burtt Davy = Sitanion jubatum J. G. Sm.). #5 quackgrass (Elymus repens (L.) Gould = Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of all species listed above are edible. In addition, the rhizomes of quackgrass (E. repens) are edible.

NOTES: No progress was made on the Elymus and Sitanion genera during the fieldwork conducted for this reference.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 Canadian wildrye (Elymus canadensis): seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #2 bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides = Sitanion hystrix): seeds Ebeling (p. 811). #3 blue wildrye (Elymus glaucus): seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #4 big squirreltail (Elymus multisetus = Sitanion jubatum): seeds Ebeling (p. 811). #5 quackgrass (Elymus repens = Agropyron repens): rhizomes Couplan (p. 465); seeds Couplan (p. 466) and Ebeling (p. 808).

Love Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Eragrostis genus.

SPECIES: #1 gray love grass, stink grass, or candy grass (Eragrostis cilianensis (Bellardi) Vignolo ex Janchen = Eragrostis major Host). #2 Mexican love grass (Eragrostis mexicana (Hornem.) Link).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of both species listed above are edible. Based on the species sampled for this reference (see notes), love grasses rank among the most valuable wild foods in the Southwest. Love grasses thrive in the southwestern grasslands—without the need for irrigation. Suitable species will probably be cultivated in the future when water prices become too high for the average farming operation. One species called teff (Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter) is already cultivated as a major cereal crop in Africa (Brink pp. 68-72). Love grasses are grasses to love and worthy of a forager’s attention.

Gray love grass (E. cilianensis) grains are sand-like and available in quantities sufficient enough to sustain a small colony of people all winter. Harvesting and processing the grains couldn’t be much easier. The grains practically fall out of the spikelets and winnowing is almost effortless. Light toasting brings out a nutty flavor and promptly changes the texture to delicately crunchy. The grains readily pop when placed over dry heat. Boiled grains form a thick, delicious, golden-yellow porridge. Any cooking method seems to yield good results. Gray love grass thrives in the southwestern grasslands without the need for irrigation. It also thrives throughout most of North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. It’s a worldwide “weed” that’s worth its weight in gold to a hungry forager. Gray love grass blooms from May to September, so grains can be expected from July to November depending on local growing conditions. Gray love grass is better known as “stink grass,” but a grass of such immense importance deserves more than a derogatory name suggesting it’s merely a smelly weed.

Mexican love grass (E. mexicana) grains were a staple food item for the Cocopah Indians of the Colorado River delta in Mexico. This species is native to North America and common throughout the southwestern United States and Mexico. It’s also found in parts of South America and Australia.

NOTES: Three species of the Eragrostis were sampled for this reference, but only one was identified to the species level. That one was gray love grass (E. cilianensis).

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 gray love grass (Eragrostis cilianensis = Eragrostis major): seeds Couplan (p. 472). #2 Mexican love grass (Eragrostis mexicana): seeds Campbell (p. 166), Castetter 1951 (p. 187), and Moerman (p. 110).

Cup Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Eriochloa genus.

SPECIES: Awned or bearded cupgrass (Eriochloa aristata Vasey).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Bearded cupgrass was utilized as a source of grains by the Cocopah Indians of the Colorado River delta. The following notes are based on a different species of the Eriochloa genus, but aspects related to edibility are probably the same. All the southwestern species may have similar edibility, but all of them would have to be sampled to confirm or refute this presumption.

Tapertip cupgrass (E. acuminata) grains taste good and pleasantly mild, but they have tough, raspy, tightly bonded hulls that compromise their texture. The flavor is similar to millet, but sweeter. The hulls are difficult to remove and irritating to the throat. Toasting makes the hulls less noticeable, but the texture remains irritating. Toasting also produces a wonderful aroma reminiscent of bread baking in an oven. Boiling produces much different results. After boiling, the hulls become chewy, somewhat like “gum stuffed with oat bran.” Boiling brings out a terrific sweetness. Tapertip cupgrass is best utilized as an ingredient for beverages. Preparing the grains as a beverage solves the problems associated with the hulls. Irritating debris can easily be removed by filtering the beverage through cloth. Pounding the grains prior to boiling allows more starches and nutrients to be released. The beverage is cloudy, light brown, and pleasantly sweet. Tapertip cupgrass is common in grasslands from southern California to southwestern Texas. It blooms from July to September and produces grains from August to November. Overall, tapertip cupgrass is a good wild food and other species may be equally good.

Bearded cupgrass (E. aristata) is found in southern Arizona, southern California, and southward into Mexico. It’s well adapted to desert climates and blooms anytime from July to October depending on seasonal rainfall. Grains can be expected from August to December. The well-developed awns of this species may hinder gathering and processing efforts, but the grains were an important resource.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Bearded cupgrass (Eriochloa aristata): seeds Ebeling (p. 417) and Moerman (p. 110).

Alpine Fescue

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Festuca genus.

SPECIES: Alpine, sheep, or Colorado fescue (Festuca brachyphylla Schult. ex Schult. & Schult. f. ssp. brachyphylla).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Alpine fescue is native to the Rocky Mountains of North America. It blooms from July to August and produces grains from August to October. Ralph Chamberlin listed the grains of this species among those gathered by the Goshiute Indians of Utah and Nevada.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Alpine fescue (Festuca brachyphylla ssp. brachyphylla): seeds Chamberlin (p. 369, cited as Festuca ovina L. var. brevifolia S. Watson), Ebeling (p. 809), and Moerman (p. 115).

Manna Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Glyceria genus.

SPECIES: #1 northern mannagrass (Glyceria borealis (Nash) Batch.). #2 fowl mannagrass (Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc. = Glyceria nervata (Willd.) Trin.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of both species listed above were gathered by Native Americans. The genus name Glyceria comes from “glykeros,” an old Greek word that means sweet, in reference to the sweet grains of water mannagrass (G. fluitans). This species was once cultivated as a source of grains in European countries (Hanelt p. 2503). It was also gathered from the wild and traded as a commodity. In the Holy Bible (Exodus 16:1-36), manna was a food that miraculously appeared to the Israelites after Moses led them out of Egypt. Verse 31 describes it as white like coriander seeds and with a taste like wafers made with honey. Manna grasses generally inhabit wetlands in temperate and boreal regions of the northern hemisphere. Although none of the species were sampled for this reference, other authors have described them favorably.

Northern mannagrass (G. borealis) is a common species found along the edges of lakes and streams throughout northern North America and southward to the mountains of Arizona and New Mexico. It blooms from July to August, so grains can be expected from September to October.

Fowl mannagrass (G. striata) is a common species found along the edges of lakes and streams throughout most of North America. It blooms from July to August, so grains can be expected from September to October.

NOTES: Some additional species that Native Americans harvested for grains include: northwestern mannagrass (G. occidentalis) of the Pacific states and floating mannagrass (G. septentrionalis) of the eastern states (Couplan p. 473). Grains of reed mannagrass were also harvested (Chamberlin p. 370, cited as Glyceria aquatica Smith).

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 northern mannagrass (Glyceria borealis): seeds Couplan (p. 473) and Ebeling (p. 809). #2 fowl mannagrass (Glyceria striata = Glyceria nervata): seeds Couplan (p. 473) and Ebeling (p. 809).

Barleys

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Hordeum genus.

SPECIES: #1 meadow barley (Hordeum brachyantherum Nevski). #2 foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum L.). #3 mouse barley (Hordeum murinum L.). #4 common, grain, or cultivated barley (Hordeum vulgare L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of all species listed above are edible.

Meadow barley (H. brachyantherum) is native to North America, growing throughout the western United States and into Canada in moist pastures, woodlands, and mountain meadows. Like most other species mentioned here, it blooms from June to August.

Foxtail barley (H. jubatum) is native to North America and grows throughout the continent, except for the southeastern region. It’s a weedy species of grasslands, woodlands, mountain meadows, and roadsides that blooms from June to August.

Mouse barley (H. murinum) is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa and is now widespread in North America, especially the southwestern United States. It frequently inhabits cultivated fields, ditches, washes, roadsides, and other disturbed places. It blooms from May to July.

Cultivated barley (H. vulgare) is native to Europe and Asia. In North America, it’s primarily a grass of agricultural land, but it occasionally establishes colonies in the wild. In the southwestern United States, recently burned areas or dry washes may offer suitable conditions for this species. An acre of cultivated barley can keep a forager well fed for months, and the harvest season is fairly long. Grains mature in late summer and remain available into autumn, so there’s no rush to harvest the bounty. However, harvesting the grains soon after maturity is wise because molds, fungi, and diseases become prevalent later in the season, especially if the weather is rainy. Spikelets of cultivated barley have 3 florets, and all 3 are fertile (meaning they produce seeds). They also have awns, but the awns are weak. They readily break apart and blow away during the winnowing process. A bigger problem is the other chaff (lemmas and paleas) clinging tenaciously to the grains. Cleaned grains can be prepared in a variety of ways. Toasted barley is fantastic. Barley grains are too hard to eat fresh off the grasses, but toasting instantly changes the texture to delicately crunchy. Toasted barely makes a good addition to trail mixes. Boiled grains are also good, especially in beef barley soup. Malt is made by sprouting barley seeds and then dry roasting the sprouts. It’s very sweet and one of the primary ingredients used in beer production. Overall, cultivated barley is an excellent resource that couldn’t be abundant enough.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 meadow barley (Hordeum brachyantherum): seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #2 foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum): seeds Couplan (p. 475) and Facciola (p. 176). #3 mouse barley (Hordeum murinum): seeds Couplan (p. 475) and Chestnut (p. 313). #4 common or cultivated barley (Hordeum vulgare): seeds Facciola (p. 176).

Prairie Junegrass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Koeleria genus.

SPECIES: Prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Schult. = Koeleria cristata auct. non Pers. = Koeleria pyramidata auct. non (Lam.) P. Beauv.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Prairie Junegrass is native to most parts of North America. It’s well adapted to dry habitats and commonly found in prairies, sagebrush valleys, juniper communities, open pine forests, and mountain meadows. Before the introduction of wheat, grains of prairie junegrass were an important resource for the Isleta Indians of New Mexico (Moerman pp. 134-135). It blooms from May to August, commonly in June as its vernacular name implies. The grains are fairly sizable, but sufficient moisture is required to produce a good crop.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Schult. = Koeleria cristata auct. non Pers. = Koeleria pyramidata auct. non (Lam.) P. Beauv.): seeds Couplan (p. 476), Ebeling (p. 810), and Moerman (pp. 134-135).

Sprangletops

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Leptochloa genus.

SPECIES: #1 bearded sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth ssp. fascicularis (Lam.) N. Snow = Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) A. Gray). #2 Mexican sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth ssp. uninervia (J. Presl) N. Snow = Leptochloa uninervia (J. Presl) Hitchc. & Chase). #3 red sprangletop (Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi ssp. brachiata (Steud.) N. Snow = Leptochloa filiformis (Pers.) P. Beauv.). #4 sticky sprangletop (Leptochloa viscida (Scribn.) Beal).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains of all species listed above are edible. Considering the ease of gathering and processing, sprangletop grains must have been a valued resource to Native Americans. Only red sprangletop gathered in the grasslands of southern Arizona was documented during the fieldwork conducted for this reference, but grains of the other species may have a similar taste, texture, and aroma. Harvesting and processing dynamics may also be similar, but these presumptions have not been verified. Sprangletops tend to prefer warm climates with plenty of moisture.

Bearded sprangletop (L. fusca ssp. fascicularis) grows in scattered locations nearly throughout the United States and blooms from June to October. It’s considered a weed in cultivated fields, but probably deserves a better reputation.

Mexican sprangletop (L. fusca ssp. uninervia) grows in scattered locations across the southern United States and blooms from March to December. Like the very similar-looking bearded sprangletop, it’s considered a weed in cultivated fields. If the grains of these species can be acquired as easily as those of red sprangletop, then these grasses are certainly worth a forager’s attention. Many good plants are considered undesirable weeds, even if they provide a valuable source of nourishment. Mexican and bearded sprangletops are probably part of this neglected group.

Red sprangletop (L. panicea) grows across the southern United States, especially in cultivated fields, disturbed areas, and ditches, and along roadsides that receive extra rainwater. It blooms from March to November, but primarily in midsummer with the onset of seasonal rainstorms. Red sprangletop grains are rock hard, nutritious, delicious, easy to harvest, easy to process, and available in quantity. They taste strikingly similar to wheat, but not as robust. Attempting to eat them fresh off the grass could easily chip a tooth and regrettably necessitate a previously unscheduled dentist appointment! Toasting or boiling quickly softens the grains. Boiling is probably the better option, unless the grains are being prepared for long-term storage. After about 15-20 minutes of boiling, the cooking water becomes cloudy yellow and the grains become soft. Boiled grains are somewhat chewy, but they don’t have any tough hulls or fibrous debris to contend with. Toasted grains are more likely to burn than pop. Low heat is recommended. Red sprangletop grains are tiny. A thousand of them barely make a mouthful, but they rank among the best wild foods. They’re generally available from late summer to late autumn, and some may persist into winter.

Sticky sprangletop (L. viscida) grows from southern California to southern Texas. The grains were gathered by Native Americans of the lower Colorado River region. Habitat and flowering time are roughly equivalent to those of other species described above.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 bearded sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca ssp. fascicularis = Leptochloa fascicularis): seeds Ebeling (p. 810). #2 Mexican sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca ssp. uninervia = Leptochloa uninervia): seeds Ebeling (p. 810). #3 red sprangletop (Leptochloa panicea ssp. brachiata = Leptochloa filiformis): seeds Ebeling (p. 810). #4 sticky sprangletop (Leptochloa viscida): seeds Campbell (p. 166).

Wildryes

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Leymus genus.

SPECIES: #1 basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus (Scribn. & Merr.) Á. Löve = Elymus cinereus Scribn. & Merr.). #2 beardless or creeping wildrye (Leymus triticoides (Buckley) Pilg. = Elymus triticoides Buckley).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of both species listed above are edible. However, they can be infected with a toxic fungus called ergot (Claviceps purpurea)—see the next genus for information about the dangers and tragic history of ergot. Cooking will not sterilize infected grains, so gathering healthy grains is imperative.

Basin wildrye (L. cinereus) is native to western North America. It’s a tall grass that’s well adapted to dry climates. Flowers bloom from June to August, and grains can be expected from July to October. Native Americans throughout the Great Basin valued the grains of this species. Basin wildrye is a conspicuous “bunchgrass” at home in the saltbrush communities, sagebrush valleys, and open juniper woodlands.

Beardless wildrye (L. triticoides) is native to western North America. It’s well adapted to dry climates, but not as common as basin wildrye. Foragers can find bearded wildrye blooming from June to August, but finding grains may be more difficult because this species often fails to produce grains.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 basin wildrye (Leymus cinereus = Elymus cinereus): seeds Cronquist (volume 6 p. 303), Ebeling (p. 809), and Rhode (pp. 177-178). #2 beardless wildrye (Leymus triticoides = Elymus triticoides): seeds Couplan (p. 472) and Moerman (p. 139).

Darnel Ryegrass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Lolium genus.

SPECIES: Darnel ryegrass (Lolium temulentum L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains of darnel ryegrass are edible. However, they’re frequently infected with a fungus that renders them toxic. Cooking will not sterilize infected grains, so gathering healthy grains is imperative. Darnel ryegrass is native to Europe and Asia, particularly the Mediterranean region. Its current distribution in the southwestern United States is rather sparse and limited to agricultural fields, so it’s not a resource of much value to foragers in that region. It blooms in spring and produces grains in summer. Darnel ryegrass, and several related species, has an ominous history. Anyone considering it as a food source should be wary of the dangers posed by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). In the Middle Ages, consuming bread infected by this fungus routinely caused outbreaks of an insidious disease called ergotism, more commonly known as Saint Anthony’s fire. Alkaloids produced by the fungus were responsible for the disease. The ergot fungus looks like a dark, brownish-purple outgrowth on the spikelets (seed/flower heads). Any grasses with unusual outgrowths or discolorations should never be gathered.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Darnel ryegrass (Lolium temulentum): seeds Couplan (p. 476), Ebeling (p. 810), and Moerman (p. 143).

Muly Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Muhlenbergia genus.

SPECIES: #1 scratch grass (Muhlenbergia asperifolia (Nees & Meyen ex Trin.) Parodi). #2 littleseed mulygrass (Muhlenbergia microsperma (DC.) Trin.). #3 deer grass (Muhlenbergia rigens (Benth.) Hitchc.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of all species listed above are edible.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 scratch grass (Muhlenbergia asperifolia): seeds Ebeling (p. 810). #2 littleseed mulygrass (Muhlenbergia microsperma): seeds Ebeling (p. 810). #3 deer grass (Muhlenbergia rigens): seeds Reagan (p. 149).

Panic Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Panicum genus.

SPECIES: #1 bulb panicgrass (Panicum bulbosum Kunth = Zuloagaea bulbosa (Kunth) Bess). #2 witchgrass (Panicum capillare L.). #3 Sonoran or Mexican panicgrass (Panicum hirticaule J. Presl var. hirticaule = Panicum sonorum Beal). #4 broomcorn or proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). #5 vine mesquite or panicgrass (Panicum obtusum Kunth = Hopia obtusa (Kunth) Zuloaga & Morrone). #6 desert panicgrass (Panicum urvilleanum Kunth).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: All species listed above were important sources of grains to Native Americans. At least two species, proso millet (P. miliaceum) and Sonoran panicgrass (P. sonorum), have been cultivated as a source of grains (Facciola p. 178). The genus name Panicum comes from “panis,” an old Latin word for bread.

NOTES: Only the grains of witchgrass (P. capillare) were sampled for this reference. These grains were light brown, rock hard, and fairly sizable. They looked and tasted similar to millet, but they were sweeter than millet. Toasting and boiling the unhulled grains failed to soften the bran-like texture, but debris of this type can be discarded after chewing. No awns, barbs, bristles, or other sharp projections compromise witchgrass grains. They seem like a good resource, and other species in this genus are certainly worth investigating.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 bulb panicgrass (Panicum bulbosum): seeds Moerman (p. 171). #2 witchgrass (Panicum capillare): seeds Moerman (p. 171). #3 Sonoran panicgrass (Panicum hirticaule var. hirticaule = Panicum sonorum): seeds Ebeling (p. 810) and Facciola (p. 178). #4 broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum): seeds Couplan (p. 478) and Facciola (p. 178). #5 vine mesquite (Panicum obtusum): seeds Ebeling (p. 810), Facciola (p. 178), and Moerman (p. 172). #6 desert panicgrass (Panicum urvilleanum): seeds Moerman (p. 172).

Canary Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Phalaris genus.

SPECIES: #1 Canary Islands, common, or annual canarygrass (Phalaris canariensis L.). #2 Carolina canarygrass or May-grass (Phalaris caroliniana Walter). #3 little or little-seed canarygrass (Phalaris minor Retz.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of all species listed above are edible. Canarygrasses are commonly cultivated as a source of birdseed or as forage for animals. They’re better known for these purposes than they are for any human-related purposes. Only one species, little canarygrass, was sampled during the fieldwork conducted for this reference.

Canary Islands canarygrass (P. canariensis) is native to southern Europe and, as one might expect, to the Canary Islands off the coast of northwestern Africa. It’s now widespread throughout much of the world, including the southwestern United States, where foragers may find it in desert upland habitats among mesquite, jojoba, juniper, and other associates.

Carolina canarygrass (P. caroliniana) is native to the southern parts of North America where it’s found in marshy habitats, along rivers, or in other adequately moist places. In the southwestern United States, it’s generally restricted to these types of habitats, but it does well in the region. Grains of Carolina canarygrass were utilized as food by Native Americans, and possibly even cultivated in the past (Walthall p. 108).

Little canarygrass (P. minor) is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, particularly the Mediterranean region. It now inhabits many parts of the world, including warmer areas of the southwestern United States. Harvesting the grains is easy, but processing them is more difficult. Chaff is unarmed and generally not a problem. It readily blows away. The grains are soft enough to eat without any cooking required, but the hulls have an unpleasant texture. Little canarygrass grains need to be hulled. Once the grasses turn from green to brown and dry out, the grains readily fall out of the florets. In the Sonoran Desert, grains can mature as early as the end of April. Freshly harvested grains are grayish-brown, shiny, finely hairy, and shaped like teardrops. Toasting or boiling fails to adequately soften the fibrous hulls. However, boiling is definitely more effective than toasting. Despite their problems, the grains have a delicious flavor. Boiling does more to highlight this flavor than toasting. Toasting only seems to highlight the fibrous hulls. Little canarygrass grains have a sweetness rarely found in commercially grown grains. Overall, they’re a good wild food well worth the effort of harvesting.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 common canarygrass (Phalaris canariensis): seeds Couplan (pp. 479-480). #2 Carolina canarygrass (Phalaris caroliniana): seeds Moerman (p. 178). #3 little canarygrass (Phalaris minor): seeds Moerman (p. 178).

Common Reed

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Phragmites genus.

SPECIES: Common reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. = Phragmites communis Trin.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Reeds (Phragmites australis = P. communis) can be utilized as food in a number of ways. The rhizomes, shoots, stems, and grains are edible. However, utilizing these parts as food isn’t without complications.

Reed rhizomes are approximately 1% flavor and 99% fiber. They’re way too fibrous to simply grind into flour. The results would be impossible to chew. Extracting starch from the rhizomes is possible, but requires some work. An easier alternative is to prepare the rhizomes as a beverage. As pieces of rhizomes are boiled, starches dissolve into the water and form an excellent broth. Pounding the rhizomes prior to boiling releases more starches. Filtering effectively removes all the unwanted debris. Concentrating the broth by boiling off excess water dramatically increases sweetness. Sufficient concentration yields reed syrup. Reed rhizomes make a fantastic beverage with a brown sugar flavor. Including the shoots and stems imparts a grassy overtone. Reed flour is made by: drying the rhizomes, shoots, and stems; pounding these parts into a fine meal; and sifting the results. The “results” are fiber mixed with traces of dusty starches. Don’t expect much flour. Growing tips of the rhizomes are softer than other sections and contain significantly more starches.

Reed shoots can serve as vegetables. They’re fairly high in carbohydrates, but the texture is rather fibrous regardless of age. Reed shoots are more like gum than food. Newly emerging shoots only a few centimeters long branching off the rhizomes are the softest part of reeds. Even at this young age, they’re covered with multiple layers of protective sheaths. Removing the sheaths is easy and exposes the tender inner portions. As new shoots become stems, they quickly toughen. Cooking won’t adequately soften tough shoots or stems. Reed shoots are solid, but the stems are hollow. Simply chewing these parts is the easiest way to extract nourishment from reeds. Inner portions of the shoots can be eaten like asparagus. The flavor is moderately sweet and grassy. No harsh accents degrade the flavor. Reed shoots make a good-quality vegetable broth or grass-flavored beverage.

Reed stems can be chewed for nourishment or processed like the rhizomes discussed above. Younger stems contain more nourishment than older stems, and nourishment is concentrated in the lower sections, especially the bases. Upper portions tend to be hollow and fibrous. Reed stems can also be utilized as a source of honeydew, which is a sweet substance made by aphids. Several grasses are potential sources of honeydew, not just reeds. Honeydew forms a tacky coating on the stems and other surfaces. It often looks like fine grains of sand. Much of the sweetness associated with reeds comes from honeydew. The various processing techniques already mentioned will extract the honeydew along with the other edible portions.

Reed grains are nearly microscopic, so good luck utilizing the grains! Entire top sections of the grasses can be chopped, pounded, and boiled to make broth. Passing this broth through a fine filter removes the abundance of chaffy debris, which is essentially everything except the broth.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Common reed (Phragmites australis = Phragmites communis): roots, shoots, stems, and seeds Couplan (p. 480).

Galleta Grass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Pleuraphis genus.

SPECIES: Galleta grass or James’ galleta (Pleuraphis jamesii Torr. = Hilaria jamesii (Torr.) Benth.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Galleta grass is native to the southwestern United States, particularly Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada. It’s well adapted to arid conditions and often dominates large areas of the landscape. William Sturtevant (1986 p. 76) lists galleta grass among the many grasses utilized as food by the Paiute and Panamint Indians. However, the extent to which it was utilized is uncertain and very few other references indicate that the grains were eaten. Galleta grass blooms primarily from May to July, so grains can be expected from July to September.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Galleta grass (Pleuraphis jamesii = Hilaria jamesii): seeds Ebeling (p. 809) and Sturtevant (1986 p. 76).

Blue Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Poa genus.

SPECIES: #1 plains bluegrass (Poa arida Vasey). #2 mutton bluegrass (Poa fendleriana (Steud.) Vasey). #3 Nevada or Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda J. Presl = Poa nevadensis Vasey ex Scribn. = Poa scabrella (Thurb.) Benth. ex Vasey).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of all species listed above are edible.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 plains bluegrass (Poa arida): seeds Moerman (p. 188) and Sturtevant (1986 p. 76); #2 mutton bluegrass (Poa fendleriana): seeds Moerman (p. 188), Ebeling (p. 811), and Sturtevant (1986 p. 76). #2 Nevada bluegrass (Poa secunda = Poa nevadensis = Poa scabrella): seeds Ebeling (p. 811).

Alkali Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Puccinellia genus.

SPECIES: Nuttall’s alkaligrass (Puccinellia nuttalliana (Schult.) Hitchc. = Puccinellia airoides S. Watson & J. M. Coult.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Nuttall’s alkaligrass grows throughout the western United States and blooms from May to September. Grains can be expected from July to November. As its name indicates, it’s comfortable in alkaline habitats, such as the shores and meadows around salt lakes.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Nuttall’s alkaligrass (Puccinellia nuttalliana = Puccinellia airoides): seeds Couplan (p. 481) and Ebeling (p. 811).

Bristle Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Setaria genus.

SPECIES: #1 plains or bigspike bristlegrass (Setaria macrostachya Kunth). #2 Liebmann’s bristlegrass (Setaria liebmannii E. Fourn). #3 marsh, yellow, or knotroot bristlegrass (Setaria parviflora (Poir.) Kerguélen = Setaria geniculata (Willd.) P. Beauv. = Setaria gracilis Kunth). #4 cattail millet or yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult.). #5 green bristlegrass (Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Bristlegrasses produce grains that look very similar to millet (S. italica) sold in health food stores. Millet is a member of the Setaria genus. Bristlegrass grains can be eaten in the milk stage (immature) or when fully mature. Based on the species sampled for this reference, the grains were easy to harvest, but difficult to process. Chaff needed to be removed and the grains needed to be hulled. Removing the chaff was easy, but hulling was more complicated. Fortunately, hulling wasn’t absolutely necessary. A hull is a tough coating. Hulls can simply be spit out after chewing the grains. The unhulled grains had a bran-like texture and a light-brown color. The actual grains were whitish. About 30 minutes of boiling softened the grains. Overall, bristlegrasses seem to be a good resource, but more species need to be sampled to better evaluate the genus.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 bigspike bristlegrass (Setaria macrostachya): seeds Ebeling (p. 811). #2 Liebmann’s bristlegrass (Setaria liebmannii): seeds Ebeling (p. 811). #3 knotroot bristlegrass (Setaria parviflora = Setaria geniculata = Setaria gracilis): seeds Ebeling (p. 811). #4 cattail millet (Setaria pumila): seeds Couplan (p. 484). #5 green bristlegrass (Setaria viridis): seeds Couplan (p. 484).

Johnson Grass

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Sorghum genus.

SPECIES: #1 sorghum, black amber, chicken corn, broom corn, shatter cane, or Sudan grass (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). #2 Johnson grass or aleppo milletgrass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. = Sorghum miliaceum (Roxb.) Snowden).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Stems, sap, and grains of both species listed above are edible. Grains can be eaten when immature or mature. Rootstocks of Johnson grass can also be utilized as food. Compared to sorghum, Johnson grass is an inferior weed, but it’s still an excellent resource for foragers. Grasses are regarded as the safest plants on Earth, but a few of them, including species in the Sorghum genus, contain harmful compounds called cyanogenic glycosides—enough to cause fatalities in grazing animals. The main cyanogenic glycoside in sorghum is called dhurrin and the risk it poses varies among the numerous varieties of sorghum. Environmental factors, such as drought and frost, can affect the toxicity of this grass. Since thorough cooking eliminates cyanogenic glycosides (Brimer 116-118), the various parts can be rendered safe. The genus name comes from “sorgo,” an Italian vernacular name for plants in the Sorghum genus.

Sorghum (S. bicolor) has a long history of cultivation and is still cultivated on a large scale today as a source of grains, sap, or forage in many parts of the world (Brink pp. 165-175 and Facciola pp. 179-180). Some authorities believe it was domesticated in tropical regions of northeastern Africa anywhere from 3,000 to 7,000 years ago, and then brought to other parts of the world to exploit its intrinsic value. In the southeastern United States, sorghum molasses has been a popular sweetener since colonial times. This sweetener is made from the sap of certain cultivated forms bred for sweetness. Forms cultivated for grains or forage contain less sugar. In the southwestern United States, sorghum is generally restricted to agricultural areas and isn’t nearly as common as Johnson grass.

Johnson grass (S. halepense) is a common weed across the southern United States, as well as in many other countries around the world. It produces impressive grains that are well worth the effort of harvesting. The grains are golden brown and tightly packaged within several layers of annoying chaff. What appears to be reddish-black grains is actually chaff (glumes, lemmas, and paleas) enclosing the grains. The chaff is shiny and slippery, and refuses to release the grains without a fight. Simply eating the cooked grains and spitting out the chaff is possible, but winnowing out the chaff beforehand makes the experience more pleasant. Johnson grass grains are too hard to eat raw, but toasting solves this problem. It also prepares the grains for long-term storage. Toasted grains have a color, texture, and aroma similar to popcorn. However, the size is a lot smaller! The flavor is more like teff than the usual grains of cultivation. It’s sweeter than oats or barley. Another way to utilize the grains is by preparing them as a beverage as follows: pound the grains (including the chaff) into a coarse flour; lightly toast the mess; simmer the mess in water over low heat for at least 30 minutes, and then filter it through cloth to remove the unwanted debris. The resulting beverage is dark brown and remarkably sweet. Other parts can also be used to make this delicious beverage. Stems of Johnson grass have a very pleasant flavor, perhaps not as pleasant as the stems of specialty varieties of sorghum, but still very pleasant. The roots and rhizomes of Johnson grass also taste very pleasant. Gathering times depend on the part being gathered. Roots and rhizomes can be gathered anytime. Stems generally arise in late spring or summer. Grains are primarily an autumn resource. Overall, Johnson grass is a welcome “weed.”

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): stems, sap (prepared as syrup), and seeds Couplan (pp. 484-485); immature seed heads and seeds Facciola (p. 179). #2 Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense): rootstocks, shoots, and seeds Duke (p. 188); seeds Couplan (pp. 484-485). References to toxicity: Burrows (pp. 952-967) and Knight (p. 12).

Dropseed Grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Sporobolus genus.

SPECIES: #1 alkali dropseed or sacaton (Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr.). #2 spike dropseed (Sporobolus contractus Hitchc.). #3 sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) A. Gray). #4 mesa dropseed (Sporobolus flexuosus (Thurb. ex Vasey) Rydb.). #5 giant dropseed (Sporobolus giganteus Nash). #6 big sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii Munro ex Scribn. = Sporobolus airoides (Torr.) Torr. var. wrightii (Munro ex Scribn.) Gould).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Perhaps no other grasses in the southwestern United States were more important to Native Americans than dropseed and sacaton grasses. All species listed above are native to North America and produce sand-like grains that are nutritious, delicious, easy to harvest, easy to process, and high in calories. The grains are generally available from late summer to late autumn. Dropseed and sacaton grasses are well adapted to arid environments.

Alkali sacaton (S. airoides) produces grains that taste like wheat, but not as strong and with a nutty accent. They’re too hard to eat fresh off the grass, but cooking promptly resolves this minor inconvenience. Toasting usually fails to soften the grains, but boiling softens them in a hurry. Boiling also produces a thick, rich, golden-brown broth or hearty porridge. Harvesting and processing these grains couldn’t be much easier. They practically fall off the grasses and have no objection to being winnowed. Some of the grains persist into winter, desperately clinging to the grasses against relentless winds, but the majority of them drop long before then. Alkali sacaton typically reaches a height of 1-2 meters. It appears in summer and produces grains in autumn. Vast colonies still thrive along dry washes throughout the West.

Spike dropseed (S. contractus) is a common species from western Texas to southern California northward into Nevada and Utah.

Sand dropseed (S. cryptandrus) grows nearly throughout the United States, especially in the Southwest, Great Basin, and Great Plains.

Mesa dropseed (S. flexuosus) is a common species from western Texas to southern California northward into Nevada and Utah.

Giant dropseed (S. giganteus) grows mainly in Arizona and New Mexico and the adjacent areas of the surrounding states.

Big sacaton (S. wrightii) is virtually identical to alkali sacaton (S. airoides) described above and can be used in the same way.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides): seeds Ebeling (p. 811), Hodgson (p. 70), and Moerman (p. 250). #2 spike dropseed (Sporobolus contractus): #3 sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus): seeds Ebeling (p. 811) and Moerman (p. 250). #4 mesa dropseed (Sporobolus flexuosus): seeds Moerman (p. 251). #5 giant dropseed (Sporobolus giganteus): seeds Moerman (p. 251). #6 big sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii = Sporobolus airoides var. wrightii): seeds Moerman (p. 251).

Slim Tridens

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Tridens genus.

SPECIES: Slim tridens (Tridens muticus (Torr.) Nash).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Slim tridens produce fairly large, cup-shaped grains that are reasonably easy to obtain. Toasted grains have a delicately crunchy texture and taste somewhat like the crust of whole-wheat bread. Boiled grains have a mild, nutty, teff-like flavor and bran-like texture. Boiling emphasizes the starchy overtones and subtle sweetness. These grains don’t expand much after boiling. Slim tridens is a “nice grass” without any barbs, bristles, awns, or other hazards to contend with. Most tridens are native to the southeastern United States. Only 2 species occur in the Southwest.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Slim tridens (Tridens muticus): seeds No specific references to edibility.

Gama-grasses

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Tripsacum genus.

SPECIES: Eastern gama-grass (Tripsacum dactyloides (L.) L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Eastern gama-grass doesn’t grow west of Texas. Isolated colonies of a related species called Mexican gama-grass (T. lanceolatum) grow in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, but this species is too rare to be of any importance to foragers.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Eastern gama-grass (Tripsacum dactyloides): seeds Couplan (pp. 485-486).

Spike Trisetum

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Trisetum genus.

SPECIES: Spike trisetum (Trisetum spicatum (L.) K. Richt.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: The grains are edible. Spike trisetum is common throughout the western United States. It blooms from July to September. Grains can be expected from August to November.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Spike trisetum (Trisetum spicatum): seeds Chamberlin (p. 383, cited as Trisetum subspicatum) and Ebeling (p. 811).

Fescues

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Vulpia genus.

SPECIES: #1 six-weeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora (Walter) Rydb. var. glauca (Nutt.) Fernald = Festuca tenella Willd.). #2 six-weeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora (Walter) Rydb. var. octoflora = Festuca octoflora Walter).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Grains of both species listed above are edible.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). #1 six-weeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora var. glauca = Festuca tenella): seeds Ebeling (p. 809). #2 six-weeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora var. octoflora = Festuca octoflora): seeds Ebeling (p. 809).

Corn

FAMILY: Grass family (Poaceae) – Zea genus.

SPECIES: Corn or maize (Zea mays L.).

TO UTILIZE AS FOOD: Corn was a staple food item in North and South America for thousands of years, but it requires cultivation. It’s not established in the wild. The sap, young stems, female flowers, unripe cobs, and grains are edible. The young stems were sold in markets during colonial times. Before the cobs develop, the stems are rich in sap that can be tapped and refined into corn syrup.

IDENTIFICATION: See the family overview for a general description of grasses. Since all grasses are edible, precise identification within the grass family is not a high priority for foragers.

REFERENCES: Seeds of all grasses are edible (United States Air Force p. 245). Corn (Zea mayz): sap and young stems Couplan (pp. 488-491); female flowers, immature seed heads (cobs), and seeds Brink (p. 230).