Frequently Asked Questions

Laid Paper

This 1718 fragment from the Officina Plantiniana is a perfect specimen of pre-industrial paper. To see these features clearly, hold the paper against a strong light source (backlighting). This reveals the "skeleton" of the sheet:

1. Chain Lines (1a): The widely spaced vertical lines. These are impressions from the thick wires that supported the sieve's frame.

2. Laid Lines (1b): The fine, closely spaced horizontal lines running across the entire sheet. These come from the thin wires of the sieve itself.

3. Deckled Edges (2): The feathered, uneven boundaries at the bottom. This "beard" occurs where the paper pulp seeped under the wooden frame (the deckle), proving the sheet was never trimmed by a binder. This is less common.

The Watermark

A watermark is the most specific piece of evidence for dating and localizing a sheet of handmade paper. To reveal this "inner skeleton," you must use backlighting—holding the paper against a lamp or light box—to see through the density of the fibers.

1. The Process: A watermark is a figure made of copper wire, sewn onto the surface of the paper mould. During the dipping process, less pulp settles on these raised wires, making the paper thinner and more translucent in those specific shapes.

2. Identification (Nicolas Le Bé): The banner at the bottom of this fragment clearly shows the name "NICOLAS LE BE". This refers to a famous dynasty of papermakers from Troyes, France. Their high-quality paper was a staple for major European printing centers, including the prestigious presses in Antwerp during the 16th and 17th centuries.

The age of Books

Determining the age and origin of a volume requires a rigorous hierarchical analysis:

Title Page & Colophon: The investigation begins with the inscriptio. When a title page is missing or misleading, the colophon often provides the final word on when the physical printing was completed. Colofons are mostly found at the end of the book.

Privileges & Grants: The privilegium serves as a vital terminus post quem. These royal or ecclesiastical grants, often dated to the specific day and city, provide the window of time in which the edition was legally produced.

1. Arabic Numerals

Anno 1602.

This is the most straightforward representation, utilizing standard Arabic numerals. The text is set in a traditional Roman typeface. The generous letter-spacing is a frequent characteristic of early seventeenth-century title pages and colophons, allowing the date to breathe at the foot of the page.

2. Standard Roman Numerals (Rubricated)

M. DCII.

This example uses standard Roman numerals but is distinguished by its two-color printing. The date is printed in red ink, an expensive and time-consuming technique requiring the sheet to be run through the press twice (or using a carefully inked frisket). The typography features italic capitals punctuated by periods, a stylistic choice common in humanist texts.

3. Apostrophus System (Claudian Letters)

CIƆ. IƆ CII.

This snippet demonstrates the apostrophus (or Claudian) numeral system, deeply characteristic of early modern typography. Instead of casting specific sorts for large numbers, compositors ingeniously built them using existing characters from their typecases. CIƆ = 1000, IƆ = 500

4. Evolved Apostrophus (Infinity Ligature)

∞. IƆ. CII.

This shows a fascinating typographic evolution of the previous system. Over time and through repeated use, typefounders began casting the cIɔ (1000) as a single, combined sort rather than requiring the compositor to assemble three separate pieces of type. This specialized sort closely resembles the modern mathematical infinity symbol (∞). It is followed by a slightly bolder IƆ (500) and CII (102).

5. Spelled Out in the Vernacular (with Long 's')

mil fix cens deux.

Instead of numerals, this colophon or privilege statement spells the year out entirely in Middle/Early Modern French ("mil six cens deux"). From a physical printing perspective, it is a perfect example of the "long s" (ſ) in the word "six" (appearing here as fix). The long 's' was a standard sort in the compositor's case for the medial and initial positions of words, though it is frequently mistaken for an 'f' by modern readers.

Woodcut (Relief Printing)

In a woodcut, the artist carves away the areas that are meant to stay white. Only the raised lines receive ink.

1. Bold Lines: Woodcut lines tend to be thicker and more robust. Because wood is a fibrous material, extremely fine lines are difficult to maintain and may "chip" over time.

2. Ink Squash: Look at the edges of the lines. Because the woodblock is pressed into the paper, the ink is often pushed to the sides of the lines, creating a slightly darker "rim" or "squash" effect.

3. Integrated with Text: Since both woodblocks and loden types are relief processes, they could be printed together in a single pass of the press. If the illustration is on the same page and shares the same ink consistency as the text, it is likely a woodcut.

4. No Plate Mark: A woodblock is usually the same height as the type and does not leave a distinct rectangular indentation around the image.

Engraving (Intaglio Printing)

In an engraving, the lines are incised into a copper plate using a sharp tool called a burin. The ink is rubbed into these grooves, and the surface is wiped clean.

1. The Plate Mark: This is the most famous tell-tale sign. Because the metal plate is forced into damp paper under immense pressure, it leaves a clear, rectangular indentation around the edges of the image.

2. Tapering Lines: Look closely at where a line begins or ends. Engraved lines often start thin, swell in the middle, and end in a sharp point—a characteristic of the burin’s movement through copper.

3. Cross-Hatching: Engravers use dense grids of fine, crossing lines to create shadows and depth. These lines can be incredibly thin and precise, far beyond what wood can achieve.

4. Tactile Ink: Because the ink is pulled out of the grooves, it actually sits on top of the paper. If you run a finger very gently over the image, you can often feel the raised texture of the ink.