Basic Structure (VSO)
In affirmative main clauses, Naucan follows a Verb–Subject–Object order, with complements arranged as follows:
Verb → Negation → Subject → Direct Object (or Predicate in copular clauses) → Indirect Object → Oblique Complement → Circumstantial Adjuncts
Negation: The negative adverb ras (“not”) typically follows the verb and precedes the subject in negative clauses.
Emphasis & Topicalization: Any core constituent (subject, object, etc.) may be fronted for emphasis or topicalization. Adjuncts can appear at the beginning, end, or even parenthetically.
Subordinate Clauses in Core Positions: If the subject, object, or any other obligatory argument is itself a subordinate clause, that clause is displaced to the end of the matrix clause.
Negative Clauses
Verb (positive) + ras → Subject → …
e.g. Yuntum ras Sara nonkē. → “Sara does not eat bread.”
Interrogatives & Exclamatives
WH‑questions: The question word always comes first, then VSO:
Zēnzat yuntum Sara? → “What does Sara eat?”
Yes/No questions: Typically formed using the negative verb form at the beginning:
Rayuntum Sara nonkē? → “Does Sara not eat bread?”
Orally, they usually end with the adverb ras ("no") if they are negative and with the adverb sas ("yes") if they are positive.
Sām gi, sas? → “Is it you, isn't it?”
Exclamatives: Use an exclamatory word at the beginning, often with strong intonation:
Kak awkkē sām thōre! → “How big the mountain is!”
Subordinate Clauses (SVO)
In subordinate clauses, the order shifts to Subject–Verb–Object:
Subject → Verb → Direct Object (or Predicate) → Indirect Object → Circumstantial Adjuncts
This SVO order applies uniformly across all types of subordinate clauses (relative, temporal, causal, conditional, etc.).
VSO is the default, unmarked order in Naucan. However, SVO and other permutations are commonly used to mark focus, contrast, or topical elements, in line with discourse needs.
Every Naucan clause consists of two core constituents:
– Always a noun phrase in the subjective case.
– Typically serves as the agent, topic, or experiencer of the sentence.
– Everything in the clause that is not the subject.
– Comes in two main types:
Verbal Predicate
Contains a finite verb form (either simple or periphrastic) and may include several arguments and modifiers:
Direct Object: Appears in the oblique case.
Example: Yuntum na abōrkē.
“I eat an apple.”
Indirect Object: Introduced with the preposition ku and a prepositional case noun phrase. If pronominal, it may appear in the oblique case without the preposition.
Example: Zitum na abōrkē ku tapin.
“I give the apple to the kid.”
Oblique Object (or Complement of Regimen): Typically introduced by a preposition and marked with the prepositional case. Sometimes appears in oblique case.
Example: Kasam na no theyn.
“I live in the city.”
Predicative Complement: A phrase (noun, adjective, or prepositional) agreeing with either the subject or the direct object. Usually appears in the oblique or prepositional case.
Example: Kasam so saruk.
“He lives happily.”
Circumstantial Adjuncts: Additional, optional elements expressing time, place, manner, etc. Always realized as prepositional phrases or standalone adverbs.
Adverbial Modifiers: Simple adverbs directly modifying the verb. These usually follow the verb.
Example: Yuntuzit thi na.
“I already ate.”
Non-Verbal Predicate
Used in clauses with copular or quasi-copular verbs such as satu (“to be”). These do not express a verbal action but rather link the subject to a quality or identity.
Attribute: A noun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase functioning as a complement to the copula. Appears in the oblique or prepositional case.
Example: Sām tapi yokhkē.
“The boy is tall.”
Circumstantial Adjuncts: As in verbal predicates, these add optional information about time, place, manner, etc.
Orational adjuncts—also known as orational modifiers—are optional elements that modify an entire main clause rather than just the verb. They provide context about speaker stance, evaluation, or discourse framing, and are not necessary for clause meaning.
They can take various forms:
Adverb phrases or adverbials (e.g., “Sadly, …” → expressions introducing the clause).
Prepositional phrases (e.g., “According to experts, …”).
Nominal phrases, clauses, or absolute constructions functioning outside subject/predicate structure.
Position in the Sentence
At the beginning or end of a main clause, often separated by a pause or comma.
Parenthetically, especially for speaker commentary or evaluation.
Functions & Categories
Orational adjuncts in Naucan can indicate:
Speaker perspective (e.g. confidently, frankly, unfortunately).
Modal evaluation (doubt, certainty, emphasis).
Discourse relations (cause, concession, condition, result—e.g., “As a result, …”).
Temporal or causal framing (e.g. “Once prepared, …”; “When finished, …”).
Contrast with Circumstantial Complements
Unlike circumstantial complements, which modify only the verb and are internal to the predicate, orational adjuncts modify the entire clause and remain optional and movable without disrupting core meaning.
Clauses can be combined either by coordination (linking units of equal status) or by subordination (embedding one clause within another).
Coordinated clauses or phrases are joined by conjunctions (e.g. a “and”, oy “or”, phun “but”). No additional changes in word order are required.
Coordinating two clauses
- Sisam na a yuntum na.
“I sit and I eat.”
Coordinating noun phrases
- Ardim tapi a mira.
“The boy and the woman walk.”
Multiple coordination
- Yuntum na abōrkē az a rur a yos.
“I eat one, two, and three apples.”
Subordinate clauses function as arguments or adjuncts of a main clause. In Naucan, subordinate clauses adopt an SVO order and are typically introduced by subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.
Relative Clauses
Introduced by interrogative‑derived pronouns (zēn “who/which”, zēnzat “what”, zēnnōme “where” etc.). They take their case from their role in the subordinate clause.
Example
Mītam na kantu zēnnōme na kasam.
“I have to go where I live.”
Complement Clauses
Complement clauses answer questions such as “what?”, “that?”, “whether?”, and often follow verbs of saying, thinking, perceiving, or knowing. They begin with uk (“that”/“whether”).
Example
Kōrim na uk gi yuntwe abōrkē.
“I want you to eat an apple.”
Adverbial Subordination
Subordinate clauses can express time, cause, condition, purpose, or concession. They are introduced by conjunctions like thro “during”, yodi “if”, sonar “after”, ennen “before”, ku uk “because”, net uk “although, even if”, etc.
Temporal (when)
Thro na sām thōren, yuntum na ak.
“While on the mountain, I eat one.”
Conditional
Yodi na sām innurok, rasakere.
“If I’m sleeping, you don’t talk loud.”
Purpose
Ku gemtu yuntutu nasi, thartum gi tenkantu.
“To be able to eat with me, you have to come.”
Concessive
Net uk gi tenkanwe, ribō na.
“Even if you come, I won't be there.”
Note on Clause Order:
All subordinate clauses (relative, complement, adverbial) retain their canonical SVO order and may be positioned either at the end or at the beginning of the main clause. Typically, they appear clause‑finally without commas; if fronted for emphasis or topicalization, they are set off by commas.
In Naucan, focus and topicalization are marked primarily by moving the constituent to be highlighted to the front of the clause.
Fronting
Any core constituent—subject, object, adverbial, etc.—can be fronted for emphasis or as topic. When fronted, it typically appears in initial position and may be followed by a subtle pause (comma).
Abōrkē yuntum na.
“An apple, I eat.” (Emphatic object focus)
Kīphkē, unawm sobi.
“Water, the man drinks.” (Emphatic adverbial focus)
Depending on discourse context, fronting can also signal “topic” (what the sentence is about) rather than narrow focus.
Lexical Emphasis with rite
The adjective rite (“same”) can follow personal pronouns to add an “intensive” or “self‑same” flavor:
Na rite yuntum.
“I myself eat.”
Zayt innurok gi rite.
“You yourself were sleeping.”
Morphological Negation
Naucan distinguishes verbs of negative polarity by means of the prefix ra-, added directly to the verb.
Example:
Radokēm na. — “I do not speak.”
This prefix applies across all tenses and moods.
Example:
Radokēbō na. — “I will not speak.”
Other words can recieve this prefix as well:
Abōr rawan — “No apple”
Adverbial Negation
The adverb ras (“not”) provides an additional strategy for negation. It typically follows the verb but precedes the subject.
Example:
Yuntum ras Sara abōrkē. — “Sara does not eat apples.”
In addition, ras can follow a phrase to negate that particular constituent:
Yuntum Sara nonkē ras. — “It is not bread that Sara eats.”
Scope and Syntax
Ras always comes after the element it negates: the verb (by default), or any constituent.
There is no double negation in Naucan. Using both ra- and ras is ungrammatical unless one of them negates a specific element in a contrastive context.
Non‑finite clauses (infinitives, participles, gerunds) routinely drop their subject:
ku arditu → “(for me) to walk.”
Imperative / prohibitive forms never show a subject pronoun:
Ardire! → “Walk!”
Rārdire! → “Don’t walk!”
Formulaic greetings, farewells, fixed expressions often omit the verb, leaving only an oblique nominal or prepositional phrase:
Berethawk! (“Good night!”)
Berizak! (“Good day!”)
Eskek! (“Thanks!”)
When the direct or indirect object is clear from context, it can be dropped altogether:
Yuntum na. → “I eat [it].”
Zitum na ku tapin. → “I give to the kid [it].”
Left‑dislocation: a topical NP is fronted and then “resumed” by a pronoun inside the clause:
Pōba, yuntum na kemkē. → “The flower, I eat it.”
Right‑dislocation: an afterthought NP that clarifies or apposes the subject or object:
Sām kanrok na, daykrek. → “I am going, the teacher.”
In coordination, shared material may be omitted in the second conjunct:
Yuntum na abōrkē a so nere. → “I eat an apple and he [eats an apple] too.”