muslim_contributions

MUSLIM CONTRIBUTIONS

Mathematics

The Islamic Empire established across Persia, the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia and parts of India from the 8th Century onwards made significant contributions towards mathematics. They were able to draw on and fuse together the mathematical developments of both Greece and India.

One consequence of the Islamic prohibition on depicting the human form was the extensive use of complex geometric patterns to decorate their buildings, raising mathematics to the form of an art. In fact, over time, Muslim artists discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be depicted on a 2-dimensional surface.

Mohammad Bin Ahmed in the tenth century invented the concept of zero or “cipher”. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown quantity, i.e. variables like x. Thus replacing the cumbersome Faruqi 395 Roman numerals and creating a revolution in mathematics. This led to advances in the prediction of the movement of the planets and advances in the fields of astronomy and geography.

The first pioneer Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented the subject of algebra and wrote the first book of algebra which was further developed by others. Al-Khowarizmi emphasized that he wrote his algebra book to serve the practical needs of the people concerning matters of inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits and commerce. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin translation, brought the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain. The word "algorithm" is derived from his name. Mathematicians used his findings all over the world until the sixteenth century.

Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan Abu Abdullah, the father of trigonometry, was born in Battan, Mesopotamia and died in Damascus in 929 CE. An Arab prince and governor of Syria, he is considered to be the greatest Muslim astronomer and mathematician.

Muslim mathematicians excelled also in geometry, as can be seen in their graphic arts, and it was the great Al-Biruni (who excelled also in the fields of natural history, even geology and mineralogy) who established trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Six hundred years before Galileo, Al-Biruni discussed the theory of the earth rotating about its own axis. Al-Biruni carried out measurements to determine the shortest distance between objects in space and determined the earth's circumference. With the aid of mathematics, he enabled the direction of the Qibla to be determined from anywhere in the world.

Science

The 7th to the 13th century was the golden age of Muslim learning. Of all the subjects developed by the Muslims in this period, there was none brought to more perfection than science. In fact, in this field, their successes were such as to have no parallel in history. They distinguished themselves in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, etc. The Muslims arriving at the correct hypothesis of the solar system's functioning was made possible only because Islam had broken down the walls of conditioned thinking which had acted as a barrier to man's intellectual progress. As soon as this artificial barrier was out of the way, the caravan of human thought began to move on its journey with a rapid pace. And thus it brought us finally to the spectacular scientific feats of the present century.

Muslim scholars played an extraordinary role in the development of scientific thinking in the Middle Ages. It argues that the Muslims were not just the preservers of the ancient and Greek knowledge, but that they contributed original works to the different fields of science. They were inspired by the Islamic view of nature that is, mankind had a duty to ‘study nature in order to discover God and to use nature for the benefit of mankind’. This knowledge was transferred to Western Europe and subsequently played an important role in revitalizing a climate of learning and exploration in Europe, leading to the Renaissance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

I. Astronomy

Muslims have always had a special interest in astronomy. The moon and the sun are of vital importance in the daily life of every Muslim. By the moon, Muslims determine the beginning and the end of the months in their lunar calendar. By the sun the Muslims calculate the times for prayer and fasting. It is also by means of astronomy that Muslims can determine the precise direction of the Qiblah, to face the Ka'bah in Makkah, during prayer. The most precise solar calendar, superior to the Julian, is the Jilali, devised under the supervision of Umar Khayyam. The Qur'an contains many references to astronomy. These references, and the injunctions to learn, inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They integrated the earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new synthesis. Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories, like the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu. In Persia, Muhammad al-Fazari developed instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which led to advances not only in astronomy but in oceanic navigation, contributing to the European age of exploration and finding the direction of the Qiblah.

The astronomer who is said to have studied the solar system and presented the heliocentric theory (which states the sun is at the center of universe) for the first time was a Greek, known by the name of Aristarchus of Samos. He died in 270 BC. However, this theory of the sun being at the center, and of the earth revolving around it, never gained popularity in those early times. The Christians believed that the earth was a sacred sphere, being the birthplace of the Jesus. Because of this belief, they found the notion that the earth was the center around which the whole universe revolved exactly in accordance with their religious beliefs. It was this idea of the earth's sacredness which came in the way of the Christians making any further investigation. But it was the Muslims, who first transferred to Europe the concept of the earth being round and the almost correct concept of the causes of the ebb and flow of the tides and the heliocentric theory developed by Aristarchus (310-320 BC), although destined to fall into oblivion for four hundred years, has today become an established fact.

Galileo is generally considered to be the inventor of the telescope. But the truth is that long before his time, Abu Ishaq ibn Jundub (d.767) had already made observations of the heavens. He had devised certain rules for observing distant objects and, in accordance with those rules, he had invented a telescopic instrument. It was this initial telescope which was further developed by Galileo, and which was the actual forerunner of the now highly perfected electric telescope of modern time.

II. Geography

Muslim scholars paid great attention to geography. In fact, the Muslims' great concern for geography originated with their religion. The Qur'an encourages people to travel throughout the earth to see God's signs and patterns everywhere. Islam also requires each Muslim to have at least enough knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah to pray five times a day. Muslims were also used to taking long journeys to conduct trade as well as to make the Hajj and spread their religion. The far-flung Islamic empire enabled scholar-explorers to compile large amounts of geographical and climatic information from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Among the most famous names in the field of geography, even in the West, are Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta, renowned for their written accounts of their extensive explorations.

In 1166, Al-Idrisi, the well-known Muslim scholar who served the Sicilian court, produced very accurate maps, including a world map with all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities. The maps by Al-Idrisi were produced in Sicily and are regarded as the most elaborate and complete description of the world made in medieval times. It was used extensively by travelers for several centuries and contained detailed descriptions of the Christian north as well as the Islamic world, Africa and the Far East.

The astrolabe, the quadrant, and other navigational devices and maps were developed by Muslim scholars and played an important role in world progress, most notably in Europe's age of exploration. It was with the help of Muslim navigators and their inventions that Magellan was able traverse the Cape of Good Hope, and Columbus had Muslim navigators on board his ships.

III. Humanity

Seeking knowledge is obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and woman. The main sources of Islam, the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Prophet Muhammad's traditions), encourage Muslims to seek knowledge and be scholars, since this is the best way for people to know Allah (God), to appreciate His wondrous creations and be thankful for them. Muslims were therefore eager to seek knowledge, both religious and secular, and within a few years of Muhammad's mission, a great civilization sprang up and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread of Islamic universities; Al-Zaytunah in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo go back more than 1,000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the world. Indeed, they were the models for the first European universities, such as Bologna, Heidelberg, and the Sorbonne. Even the familiar academic cap and gown originated at Al-Azhar University.

Muslim scholars studied the ancient civilizations from Greece and Rome to China and India. The works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and others were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars and scientists then added their own creative ideas, discoveries and inventions, and finally transmitted this new knowledge to Europe, leading directly to the Renaissance. Many scientific and medical treatises, having been translated into Latin, were standard text and reference books as late as the 17th and 18th centuries.

IV. Chemistry

Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815) is ranked greatest in the field of medieval chemical science. He more clearly recognized and stated the importance of experimentation than any other early scientist of chemistry, and made noteworthy advanced in both the theory and practice of chemistry. Introduced the experiment scientific method for chemistry. And invented more than twenty types of medical apparatus.

Jabir's books were held as the final authority on chemistry in Europe until the fifteenth century. The initial ladder to the modern western chemistry of the eighteenth century was produced by Jabir. It is believed that Jabir wrote two thousand books on different sciences. So many scholarly books had never been written before by any single writer.

Medicine

The science of medicine came into being in ancient Greece about 200 years before the Christian era and flourished for another two centuries. In this way, the whole period extended over about four or five hundred years. This science did not see any subsequent advance in Greece itself. Although a European country, Greece did not contribute anything to the spread of its own medical science in Europe, or to modern medicine in the West. These facts are proof that the atmosphere in ancient Greece was not favorable to the progress of medicine.

The Greek medicine which was brought into being by certain individuals (effort was all at the individual level, as the community did not give it general recognition) remained hidden away in obscure books for about one thousand years after its birth. It was only when these books were translated into Arabic during the Abbasid period (750-1258), and edited by the Arabs with their own original additions, that it became possible for this science to find its way to Europe, thus paving the way for modern medical science.

In Islam, the human body is a source of appreciation, as it is created by Almighty Allah (God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe, how to prevent diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have been important issues for Muslims.

Prophet Muhammad himself urged people to "take medicines for your diseases", as people at that time were reluctant to do so. He also said: "God created no illness, but established for it a cure, except for old age. When the antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the permission of God.

This was strong motivation to encourage Muslim scientists to explore, develop, and apply empirical laws. Much attention was given to medicine and public health care. The first hospital was built in Baghdad in 706 AC. The Muslims also used camel caravans as mobile hospitals, which moved from place to place. The first hospital in Baghdad was founded on the initiative of the Caliph Harun al Rashid

Since the religion did not forbid it, Muslim scholars used human cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students understand how the body functions. This empirical study enabled surgery to develop very quickly.

The first important physician was Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and scientist, was one of the greatest physicians in the world in the Middle Ages. He stressed observation and clinical medicine and was unrivaled as a clinician. His greatest work, Al-Havi, was translated into Latin as the Continens, (the comprehensive book). It was the first encyclopedia of all medical science up to that time, and had to be completed by his disciples after his death. For each disease, he gave the views of Greek, Syrian, Indian, Persian and Arabic authors, and then added notes on his clinical observations and expressed a final opinion. Researchers have accepted that he wrote first medical book on smallpox in the whole of recorded history. Prior to this, no one had ever done research on this topic which ultimately laid the foundation for the cure for smallpox. Al-Razi also included in his studies ideas involving human behavior and he was a pioneer in the field of psychology, thus removing the theories of demons and witchcraft associated with these diseases in the Christian world.

Khalaf Abul-Qasim Al-Zahrawi was a very famous surgeon in the eleventh century. He was often called the “father of surgery” and wrote an illustrated encyclopedia that would ultimately be used as a guide to European surgeons for the next five hundred years. Al-Zarawhi’s surgical instruments, such as scalpels, bone saws, and forceps are still used by modern surgeons.

Ibn Sina , better known to the West as Avicenna, was perhaps the greatest physician until the modern era. His famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb or Canon of Medicine, remained a standard textbook even in Europe, for over 700 years. Ibn Sina's work is still studied and built upon in the East. he established free hospitals and developed treatments for diseases using herbs, hot baths, and even major surgery

Another significant Muslim discovery came in the 13th century, when the Muslim medic Ibn Nafis described the pulmonary circulation almost three hundred years before William Harvey, the English physician who is believed by many Westerners to have “discovered” it.

The technique of inoculation, or the introduction of a vaccine into the body to induce immunity or protection to a disease, is also said to have been designed by Muslims in Turkey and brought to Europe by the wife of England’s Turkish ambassador in 1724.