The Foundations of Education

1. The Department of Education gives greater emphasis on the development of basic skills. What is the philosophical basis for this?

a. Essentialism

b. Existentialism

c. Perennialism

d. Pragmatism

2. Teacher M views his students as unique, free-choosing and responsible individuals. All classroom activities revolve around the said premise. What theory underlies this?

a. Essentialism

b. Existentialism

c. Progressivism

d. Realism

3. Religious rituals in the classroom and in the school, programs prove the deep natural religiosity of the Filipinos. Which philosophy has greatly contributed to the tradition?

a. Buddhism

b. Confucianism

c. Hinduism

d. Islam

4. In order to make Roman education truly utilitarian, how should the day-to-day lessons be taught?

a. Taught in the students' native dialect

b. Taught interestingly through the play way method

c. Related and linked to the events happening in everyday life

d. Practiced at home under the guidance of their respective parents.

5. Which influenced the military training requirements among students in the secondary and tertiary levels?

a. Chinese

b. Greeks

c. Orientals

d. Romans

6. Which philosophy has the educational objective to indoctrinate Filipinos to accept the teachings of the Catholic church which is foster faith in God?

a. Realism

b. Pragmatism

c. Idealism

d. Existentialism

7. Virtue as one component in the teaching of Rizal as a course focuses on the teaching of good and beauty consistent with the good and beauty in God. What philosophy supports this?

a. Existentialism

b. Idealism

c. Progressivism

d. Social Reconstructionism

8. Giving education the highest budgetary allocation, the Philippine government recognizes the possible contribution of its future citizens to the national development goals of the Philippine society. Which stressed this goal of education for social transformation?

a. Athenian education

b. Followers of Christ

c. Greek education

d. Roman education

9. The progressivists emphasized the individuality of the child. What is the concern of the reconstructionists?

a. Experiential learning

b. Socialization

c. Social problem

d. None of the above

10. One of the following quotations does not conform to the Christian doctrine of Education for Humanitarianism. Which one is it?

a. Do unto others as you would like others do unto you

b. Love they neighbor as thyself

c. Not on bread alone is man to live but on every utterance that comes from mouth of God

d. Whatever good things we do to our poor, helpless brothers, we do it for God.

11. Scouting and Citizen's Army Training (CAT) give training in character-building, citizenship training, etc. Which leads to the creation of a new social order and a new society eventually. What philosophy supports this?

a. Existentialism

b. Perennialism

c. Progressivism

d. Social reconstructionism

12. Teacher V demonstrated the technique on how to group students according to their needs and interests and how to use self-paced instructional materials. Which philosophy is manifested in this activity?

a. Essentialism

b. Progressivism

c. Realism

d. Social Reconstructionism

13. Teacher G, a Christian Living teacher, puts so much significance on values development and discipline. What could be her educational philosophy?

a. Idealism

b. Pragmatism

c. Progressivism

d. Realism

14. Which one does not illustrate the principle that rights and duties are correlative?

a. The right of an unmarried pregnant teacher to abort her baby in relation to her duty to protect her name and her job as a teacher

b. The right of a state to compel students to military service is reciprocated by the duty of the state to protect them.

c. The right to a living wage involves the duty of the school administrators to give the salary agreed upon and the duty of the teachers to give a fair amount of work.

d. The right to life of children and to be given respect of such right.

15. Why should a teacher take the obligation upon himself to study and understand the custom and traditions of the community where he works?

a. To change the culture of the community.

b. To have a sympathetic attitude for the people of the community.

c. To identify the weaknesses of the culture of the community.

d. To please the people of the community.

16. A teacher who is a recognized expert in carpentry works, taught his students how to prepare and construct good and aesthetic furniture from local resources. What cultural transmission process is this?

a. Acculturation

b. Enculturation

c. Indoctrination

d. Observation

17. Every first day of the school year, Miss Reyes prepared activities which will make her Grade 2 children, sing, plan, learn and introduce themselves to the class. What process did the teacher emphasize?

a. Acculturation

b. Enculturation

c. Indoctrination

d. Socialization

18. Which program in the educational system seems to be aligned to the Christian humanitarian principle respect for the human personality?

a. The alternative learning system delivery

b. The functional literacy program for the out-of-school youth and adults

c. The promotion of the basic human rights of the Filipino

d. The study of the Philippine Constitution

19. With a death threat over his head, Teacher Liza is directed to pass an undeserving student, if she is a hedonist, which of the following will she do?

a. Don't pass him, live her principle of justice. She will get reward, if not in this life, in the next.

b. Don't pass him. She surely will not like someone to give you a death threat in order to pass.

c. Pass the student. That will be of use to her, the student and his parents.

d. Pass the student. Why suffers the threat?

20. Which philosophy approves a teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students to memorize the rules of grammar?

a. Existentialism

b. Idealism

c. Pragmatism

d. Realism

21. In a student conducted, the pupils were asked which nationality they would prefer if given a choice. Majority of the pupils wanted to be Americans. In this case, in which obligation relative to the state are schools seemed to be failing?

a. Instill allegiance to the constitutional authorities

b. Promote national pride

c. Promote obedience to the laws of the state

d. Respect for all duly constituted authorities.

22. Which subject in the elementary and likewise in the secondary schools are similar to the goal of Rome to train the students for citizenship?

a. Communication Arts

b. MAPEH/PEHMS

c. Science

d. THE/TLE

23. Which of the following schools, practices are not based on Social Reconstructionism?

a. Establishment of SDF

b. Exemption of Scouts from CAT

c. Promoting culture and arts in schools

d. Promoting project WOW

24.Which of the following is the focus of the Japanese education in the Philippines?

a. Democratic ideals and nationalism

b. Love and service to one's country

c. Religion and love for Asian brothers

d. Vocational and health education

25. According to reconstructionism, the goal of education is to bring about a new social order. Which practice best manifests this view?

a. The class conducts scientific experiments to discover or verify concepts.

b. The class discusses role models and their impact on society.

c. The class allowed to engage in divergent thinking.

d. The class undertakes well-planned projects in the community.

26. Teacher A, a Values Education teacher emphasizes ethics in almost all her lessons. Which of the following emphasizes the same?

a. Liberal Education

b. Moral Education

c. Religious Training

d. Social Education

27. Which reform in the Philippine Educational System advocates the use of English and Filipino as media of instruction in specific learning areas?

a. Alternative Learning

b. Bilingual Education

c. K-12 Program

d. Multilingual Education

28. Activities planned by school clubs/ organizations show school-community connection geared towards society's needs. What philosophy is related to this?

a. Existentialism

b. Progressivism

c. Realism

d. Social reconstructionism

29. What philosophy is related to the practice of schools acting as laboratory for teaching reforms and experimentation?

a. Essentialism

b. Existentialism

c. Progressivism

d. Social Reconstructionism

30. Which of the following situations presents a value conflict?

a. The teacher and his students have class standing as their priorities.

b. The teacher and the administrator follow a set of criteria in giving grades.

c. The teacher has students whose parents want their children to obtain higher grades than what they are capable of getting.

d. The teacher sets high expectations for intelligent students such as getting higher grades.

31. Which situation shows that a sense of nationhood is exemplified?

a. The class conducted a debate using Filipino as medium

b. The class is required to watch the TV sitcom of Oprah to improve their English communication skills.

c. The class opted to make a choral rendition of the theme song of a foreign movie.

d. When Teacher Chris asked her Grade 2 students in what country they wish to live, most of them chose United States.

32. A teacher who believes in the progressivist theory of education would embrace certain reforms on methodology. Which reform would be consistent with this theory?

a. Active participation of teachers

b. Formal instructional pattern

c. Strict external discipline

d. Teacher domination of class activities

33. What philosophy of education advocates that the curriculum should only include universal and unchanging truths?

a. Essentialism

b. Idealism

c. Perennialism

d. Pragmatism

34. Which of the following is not a function of the school?

a. Changing cultural practices

b. Development of attitudes and skills

c. Reproduction of species

d. Socialization among children

35. Which move liberalized access to education during Spanish period?

a. The education of illiterate parents

b. The establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each municipality

c. The hiring of tribal tutors to teach children

d. The provision of vocational training for school age children

36. Which of the following is the chief aim of Spanish education?

a. Conformity and militarism

b. Perpetuation of culture

c. Propagation of the Catholic religion

d. Utilitarianism and conformity

37. Which of the following is the aim of our education during the Commonwealth period?

a. Designed after Japanese education

b. Patterned after the American curriculum

c. Predominantly religious

d. Purely nationalistic and democratic

38. Which of the following is not a reason why the basic education curriculum has been restructured?

a. To become globally competitive during this industrial age

b. To be relevant and responsive to a rapidly changing world

c. To empower the Filipino learners for self- development throughout their life.

d. To help raise the achievement level of students

39. Which philosophy of education influence the singing of the National Anthem in schools?

a. Nationalism

b. Naturalism

c. Pragmatism

d. Socialism

40. Who among the following believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular homework, and respect for legitimate authority?

a. Essentialist

b. Progressivist

c. Realist

d. Reconstructionist

41. Which of the following is the main function of the philosophy of education?

a. Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society's needs

b. Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning

c. Define the goals and set the direction for which education is to strive

d. Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy

42. Homeroom advisers always emphasize the importance of cleanliness of the body. Children are taught how to wash their hands before and after eating. What is this practice called?

a. Folkway

b. Laws

c. Mores

d. Social norm

43. Which curricular move served to strengthen spiritual and ethical values?

a. Integration of creative thinking in all subject

b. Introduction of Values education as a separate subject area

c. Reducing the number of subject areas into skill subject

d. Re-introducing science as a subject in Grade 1

44. The greatest happiness lies in the contemplative use of mind, said Plato. Which of the following activities adheres to this?

a. Cooperative learning

b. Introspection

c. Role Playing

d. Social Interaction

45. Your teacher is of the opinion that the word and everything in it are ever changing and so teaches you the skill to cope with the changes. Which in his governing philosophy?

a. Experimentalism

b. Existentialism

c. Idealism

d. Realism

46. Teacher Myra says: "If it is billiard that brings students out of the classroom, let us bring it into the classroom. Perhaps, I can use it to teach Math". To which philosophy does teacher Myra adheres to?

a. Essentialism

b. Idealism

c. Progressivism

d. Reconstructionism

47. Which of the following should be done to build a sense of pride among Filipino youth?

a. Replace the study of folklores and myths with technical subjects

b. Re-study our history and stress on our achievements as people

c. Re-study our history from the perspective of our colonizers

d. Set aside the study of local history

48. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experience study should follow learning in her teaching. Which of the following does she do to support her belief?

a. Encouraging learners to memorize factual knowledge

b. Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills

c. Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles

d. Requiring learners full master of the lesson.

49. Which philosophy influenced the cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching?

a. Confucianism

b. Existentialism

c. Taoism

d. Zen Buddhism

50. Which of the following situation manifests a balance between teachers’ responsibility and accountability?

a. She entertains her students with personal stories until the end of the period.

b. She spends most of the time on the latest gossips in showbiz.

c. She teaches as much as she could for duration of the period.

d. She teaches as well as entertains the students with per personal stories.

Answers:

1A

2B

3B

4C

5D

6C

7B

8D

9C

10C

11D

12B

13A

14A

15B

16B

17D

18C

19D

20B

21B

22D

23C

24D

25D

26B

27B

28D

29C

30C

31A

32A

33C

34C

35B

36C

37D

38D

39A

40A

41C

42D

43B

44B

45A

46C

47B

48C

49D

50C

The Medieval Movements in Education

The medieval period is also known as the middle age or the dark age which refers to the span of time from the downfall of the Roman empire in the year A.D 476 to the beginning of the Renaissance period about 1333.

The different educational movements during this epoch in history are discussed hereunder:

• Monasticism or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions as well as in other faiths such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.

Education was based on Monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. During reign of Charlemagne (722-804), he supported the Monastic schools and even established court schools to educate his constituents.

• Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical method of philosophical analysis predicated upon a Latin Catholic theistic curriculum which dominated teaching in the medieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700.

Saint Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of foremost proponents of Scholastic movement. He wrote the Summa Theologize which became the basis of the majority of the doctrines of the Catholic Church.

The Medieval University started as “universitas magistrorum et scholarium” or corporation of teachers and students chartered by the pope or the kings. This was a corporation organized during the Middle Ages for the purposes of higher education. The first Western European institutions generally considered to be universities were established in the Kingdom of Italy (then part of the Holy Roman Empire), the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France, the Kingdom of Spain, and the Kingdom of Portugal between the 11th and 15th centuries for the study of the arts and the higher disciplines of theology, law, and medicine.

The first organized university was the University of Bologna chartered by the Emperor Frederick I in 1158. This school is a research university in Bologna, Italy. Founded in 1088 by an organized guild of students (hence studiorum), it is the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation.

The Composition of the Medieval University:

• Studium Generale is the student body. This is the old customary name for a medieval university in medieval Europe. A medieval university whose graduates possessed a license to teach what was recognized and accepted by other universities.

• Nation is a group of students who had the same place of origin.

• Councilors are leaders of a nation.

• Facultas are teachers of the same subject Dead – head of the facultas.

• Rector is the head of the medieval university.

• Chivalry or the chivalric code is an education as a social discipline and an informal and varying code of conduct developed between 1170 and 1220. It was associated with the medieval Christian institution of knighthood; knights' and gentlemen's behaviors were governed by chivalrous social codes. This kind of movement flourished in the Christian countries in Europe as a response to the increasing educational needs of the sons of the nobility. Under this system, a boy of noble birth has to pass through the following stages before he is fully accepted as a member of his social class:

  • • Page is an attendant to the noble courts at the age of 7 years

    • Squire is an attendant to a knight at the age of 14 years

    • Knight is a full-pledged warrior who has vowed to:

      • • protect the women and the poor

        • defend the church and the state

        • attack the wicked and

        • shed blood for the sake of his country and his compatriots

The Guild System is education for the middle class. Towards the end of the medieval period, a new class of people arose between the nobles and the peasants- the bourgeoisie (burgher) or the middle class.

These people were not really rich like the landed gentry, nor poor like vassals, but rather, they acquired their fortune from the profits in commercial and industrial endeavors brought about by the “Crusaders”. In order to protect their interests, they set up organizations known as guild. There were two types of guilds:

• The crafts guild is an organization of skilled craftsmen.

• The merchant guild is an organization of business.

Before a person is accepted as a member of any of the guild, he must pass through the following stages:

• Apprentice is a trainee assigned to a master.

• Journeyman is a trainee who travels from place to place under different masters and is paid for his labor.

• Master craftsman is a full pledged member of a guild.

• As the number of the middle class increased the need for more schools to meet the education needs of their children also increased which paved the way for the establishment of the new type of schools, viz:

The chantry schools are schools established through the foundations under the clergy. The guild schools served as vocational schools who catered to the children of the members of the craft guild. And, the Burgher schools established to educate the children of the members of the merchant guild.

The Islamic Influences on Education

Islam which means submission to God, a religion that was established by the prophet Muhammad (570-632) is a monotheistic religion whose followers worship only one God – Allah.

The teachings of this religion is based on the Qur’an, their sacred scripture. At the peak of the glory of the Islamic civilization they have contributed the following to the world and to education:

• Established the most complete curricula from elementary to university.

• Hindu-Arabic numerals

• Advanced learning in Pharmacy, surgery and medicine for the preservation of life

• Taught geography using globes

• Invented the pendulum clock, discovered the nitric acid and sulfuric acid

• Used compass and gunpowder

• Cultivated rice, silkworm, sugar and cotton

• Determined the height of the atmosphere, weight of the air and specific gravity of bodies.

The Biological and Psychological Bases of Education Professional Education Components

The Licensure Examination for Teachers covers the professional education which consists of Facilitating Learning and Child and Adolescent Development, The Teaching Profession, Curriculum Development, Social Dimensions of Education Principles, Methods and Strategies of Teaching, Field Study, Educational Technology and Assessment of Learning.

The Human Growth and Development

This subject deals with the nature of the learner as the basis of the teaching- learning process. It tackles the growth and development of the child in a life spam approach.

The Components of the Educative Process

• Learner

• Teacher (involved in the learning process)

• School (the learning situation)

The Biological and Psychological Bases of Education

The Beginning of Life

Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a reproductive cell of the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a male reproductive cell the spermatozoon (spermatozoa, plural). This is approximately 280 days before birth.

Within each sex cell (sperm or egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They are threadlike particles which contain between 40,000 and 60,000 genes. The genes contain the DNA and RNA which are considered as blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary characteristics traits from the parents to the offspring.

The Sex Determination

All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the male gametes carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y chromosomes. If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XX combination and the sex of the child is female. And, if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XY combination and the sex of the child is male.

The Multiple Birth or Twins

The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies within a few hours or days. There are two types of twin births – the identical and fraternal twins. The identical or uni-ovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized by a single sperm cell. Sometimes, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell the new cell separates instead of remaining together. Why the separation occurs, no one knows for certain, but there is evidence that it is a result of hormonal disturbances. Non-identical, biovular or fraternal twins on the other hand, are the products of two ova fertilized simultaneously by two separate sperm cells.

The Factors of Growth and Development

The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual are:

• Heredity is the process by which the new organism is endowed with certain potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later development. Maturation on the other hand is the process by which heredity exerts influence long after birth.

• Environmental influence is the interaction between an individual’s inherited traits his surroundings and his nurture.

The Principles of Development

Phylogenetic principle states that development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable and is true to all members of certain race.

The Predictable Trends of Development

• Cephalocaudal trend is when the development proceeds from head to foot direction

• Proximodorsal trend is the parts of the body nearest the center (i.e.) are the parts which develop earlier.

• Ontogenetic principle is the rate of development is unique to every individual. It is brought about by one’s heredity as well as environmental influences.

The Stages of Development

Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual – passes through in his lifetime:

• Pre-natal Stage. This is from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.

• Infancy or babyhood (birth to two years). It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and many ontogenetic skills emerge.

• Early Childhood (two to six years). It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.

• Late Childhood (six to twelve years). Hang age, age of creativity, development of social, self – help, play and school skill.

• Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years). Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking and acting.

• Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years). Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent and bread winner.

• Middle age (forty to retirement). Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced.

• Old age (retirement to death). Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as well as physical illnesses are experienced.

The Theories of Development

The following are the major theories of development:

Psychoanalytic Theory (psycho-sexual development). This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian psychiatrist who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or urges toward self-satisfaction.

The Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory

A. Oral stage (birth to two years)

• Mouth is the center of pleasure

• Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and other vices involving the mouth.

B. Anal stage (two to four years old)

• Anal region is the center of pleasure.

• Gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel.

• Failure to satisfy this will result to:

• Frugality (stinginess)

• Greediness

• Obstinate or Stubborn character

C. Phallic stage (four to six years old). This is derived from the Greek work “phallus” which means male sex organ (symbol of strength and power) derives pleasure from the manipulation of sex organs

• Oedipus complex is the rivalry between the son and the father to get the mother’s attention

• Electra complex is the rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the father’s attention

D. Latency stage (six to twelve years old)

• Calm stage

• Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious mind

• Energies are diverted to school and peer activities

E. Genital Stage (twelve years old and above

• Starts with the onset of puberty

• The individual is now attracted to the opposite sex

The Social Development Theory

This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 and is responsible for the social development theory of learning. He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development. He believed that this life long process of development was dependent on social interaction and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development. There are the following:

• Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person’s interaction with other.

• Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop through interaction with other.

• Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s level of thinking.

• Students will learn best through activity.

• Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with teacher.

The Psycho-Social Theory

This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight basic developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life. Each of these stages has a specific psychosocial crisis that affects the development of the child.

A. Stage 1 (0-18 months)

• Trust vs. mistrust

• The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger

B. Stage II (18 months to 3years old)

• Learns to walk and use his hands

• If encouraged, develops autonomy

• If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the child develops dependence and shame, doubt, self – pity

C. Stage III (3 to 6 years old)

• Begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he can accomplish aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior.

• When punished develops sense of guilt

• The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and action

D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years old)

• Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school

• Technical skills are learned

• Peer group influence

• Identification and/or separation with sexes

• Play age

• When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from him, he develops a sense of inferiority

E. Stage V (12 to 18 years old)

• Identity crisis is always asking who am I?

• Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in his body

• Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of behavior

F. Stage VI (18-24 years old)

• Age of intimacy

• Develops warm intimate relation with another person and failure to develop such a relationship results to isolation

G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years old)

• The most productive years of adulthood

• The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to family and society

H. Stage VIII (54 to death)

• The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life

• The period of achievement and sense of integrity

• Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair

• Fear of the end of life

The Cognitive Development Theory

This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a child enters the world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive competencies of the adult, and gradually develops these competencies by passing through a series of stages of development discussed hereunder.

The Cognitive Development Process

• Assimilation comes from (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part of itself. The individual acquires information or knowledge by which experiences are integrated into existing schemes.

• Accommodation a process of creating a new scheme by modifying an existing scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment.

The Stages of Development Based on Pageant’s Theory

The Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2yeas). The learning is based on sense perception. The child is unaware of his environment. This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to the child.

• Primary circular reaction is repeated actions centered on the infant’s body.

• Intentional Behavior is when the child repeats actions so as to prolong interesting or pleasant events

• Object Permanence is when the knowledge of the existence of objects in his environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such that the child starts to search for missing objects like toy’s etc.

• Representation allows the child to seek necessary solution through manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.

The Pre-Operations Stage (2 to 7 years)

• Emergence of language skills

• Interprets experiences

• Words become symbols for objects

The child thinking is egocentric is when he or she centered on himself. Here are some of the examples below:

• The child is fond of telling tall tales to get the attention of everyone the child’s thinking is irreversible – inability to rethink.

• Coins are preferred than a 100 – peso bill. The child is incapable of logical thinking

The Concrete Operations (7- 11 years old)

• Elementary school years

• The child begins to learn symbol and concepts, time, space, shape, size etc.

• The child’s thinking becomes more logical and systematic

Conservation is the ability of the child to conceptualize the retention and preservation of the same quantity under various transformations. Example are four .50 coins – Php 2.00 or 1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton

Reversibility is the ability of the child to understand the completion of certain operations in reverse order but ending up the same. The examples are the ability to understand that ice and water vapor are the different states of water

The Formal Operation (11 to 16 years old – high school years)

• Develops logical reasoning skill.

• Decreases egocentricity.

The Theory of Moral Development

This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed that as Children grow they pass through several levels of moral development consisting of different stages which serve as the bases of their behavior as adults.

Level One (Pre-Conventional Morality)

• Children’s judgements are based on external criteria

• Right and wrong are according to standards set by authorities

• Behavior is based on reward and punishment

• Wrong behavior results to punishment

• Right behavior results to reward and praises

Level Two (Conventional Morality)

• Children’s judgement is based on Groups expectations

• Actions are based on self-satisfaction

• Helps those who help him

• Desirable behavior pleases others

• Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted

• What is right is what is accepted

• Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval

Level Three (Post-Conventional Morality)

• The individual recognizes arbitrariness (absoluteness) of social and legal conventions

• The individual develops concept of moral values

• Laws are obligatory (dura Lex sed Lex)

• The concept of right and wrong is governed by reasons

• Morality is based on mutual respect

• The individual conforms to the rules to avoid self – condemnation

The Individual Differences

This refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the same or alike, as such, the teacher should make it a point tutelage. And, there are factors affecting individual differences, although it is said that all men are created equal, yet individuals do vary and differ from one another in terms of:

A. Age differences and personal adjustments. An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils though the child is intelligent.

B. Sex differences

• Boys are given roles in the society different from the girls

• Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggressiveness and are expected to perform burdensome activities

• Girls on the other hand are characterized by neatness, simplicity and for being affectionate

C. Family and community back ground

D. Physical conditions are physical ailment or defects affect the learning process

E. Emotional response and attitudes (E.Q.)

F. Mental abilities and specific aptitudes (I.Q.)

• Moron is capable of caring for his own needs and has mentality of a 12-year-old child

• Idiot has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child and has a short life span

• Imbecile can be taught concerning his personal needs and has a mental capacity of an eight-year-old child

The Learning Process

Learning is a mental activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelskie, 1956). In so far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of the organism.

The Types of Learning

The Sensory motor focuses on understanding of the external world through sense perception and the development of movements as a reaction to stimuli.

• Cognitive as rational, mental and the intellectual development

• Association learning is the acquisition and retention of facts and information Establishing relationships among ideas and experiences

• Problem-solving is overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal.

The Affective (Appreciative) involves acquisition of attitudes and interest as well as experiences that will lift the individual above the tangible values associated with everyday life.

• The Aesthetic appreciative experiences can be obtained in the field of music, art and literature

• The Intellectual appreciative experiences are based on the premise that all learning has emotional correlates

The Theories of Learning

The following are the major theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge, 1964):

The Stimulus-Response (S-R) or Association Theory states that for every stimulus there is a corresponding response. Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike in 1900. It assumes that human activities are based on the association or connection between stimulus and response. It is the belief that all mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired connections between the situations and response. It includes the three fundamental laws of learning:

• The Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or act, allowing him to do so is satisfying, whereas preventing him would be annoying.

• The Law Exercise is a constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.

• The Law of Effect is when the learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it weakened if it leads to vexation or annoyance.

The Theory of Conditioning states that the process of learning consists of the acquisition of new ways of reacting to stimuli developed through attaching new stimuli to established modes of behavior. There are two types of conditioning theory:

Classical Conditioning is based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, who postulated that conditioning consist of eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.

The Principles under Classical Conditioning:

• Adhesive principle is a response is attached to every stimulus. For every stimulus, there is always a corresponding response.

• Excitation is also known as the law of acquisition. It occurs when a preciously neutral stimulus gains the ability of eliciting the response.

• Extinction also known as unlearning and occurs when the conditioned response is no longer elicited by the conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is frequently presented without the paired stimulus.

• Stimulus generalization happens when the conditional response is also elicited by other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which does not appear for some time but re-occurs without need of further conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment conducted by Burrhus Frederick Skinner on a hungry rat. He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the time of reinforcement, one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or punishment as a consequence of his action. Feedback Principle states that an organism’s responses maybe reinforced by presentation or removal. In other words, rewards and punishments.

The Social Learning Theory is based on the studies of Richard Wallace and Albert Bandura concerning a group of children who were exposed to three models in films. The first model was rewarded, the second was punished while nothing was done to the third model. Children were then asked to choose among these models. The children chose the first model, then the no consequence/model and the last choice was the model who was punished. Based on this experiment, it was viewed that children’s learning process involves observation and imitation.

The Cognitive Field Theory otherwise known as Field Theory describes how a person gain understanding of himself and his world in a situation where his self and his environment compose a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This theory defines learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insights and changes the old ones. And, there are types of Cognitive Field Theory:

• Insight Leaning – a basic sense of, or feeling for relationships. It is used to denote the meaning of a matter, idea or point. The Insights of a person are not equated with his consciousness or awareness of his ability to describe them verbally; their essence is a sense of, or feeling for pattern in a life situation. This theory is based on the experiment conducted by Wolfgang Kohler on the chimpanzee. Kohler postulated that the more intelligent the organism and the more experiences he has the more capable he is of gaining higher insight.

• Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from the terms vector which means a quantity that has magnitude and direction and topology which is concerned with properties of geometric configuration which are unaltered by elastic deformation. As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that individuals exist on a field of forces within his environment that move, change and give him a degree of stability and substance or define his behavior. The behavior of an individual is a result of forces operating simultaneously within his environment and life space.

• Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which means a structure, configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or psychological phenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties not derivable by summation of its parts. It claims that the whole is more than the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts. Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values or beliefs and may or may not have anything to do with the change in overt behavior. It further claims that one does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be accompanied by realization of consequences. Thus, learning occurs as a result of or through experiences. Learning, therefore, involves the catching, and generalization of insights which often are acquired first on a nonverbal level or the level of feeling and may be verbalized later or may not be verbalized at all.

• Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory of learning as advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the acquisition of whatever form of knowledge is always a dynamic and interactive process because the learner purposively participates in the process of knowledge acquisition who selects, structures, retains and transform information. Bruner argued that learning is thinking and thinking is the process whereby one makes sense out of the various and somehow unrelated facts through a process called conceptualization or categorization. (Bigge, 1980)

The Sub Sumption Theory

This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (1918- 2008), an American psychologist born in New York and an ardent follower of Jean Piaget. Ausubel’s Theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal or textual presentations in a school setting.

• According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information.

• He considered that a primary process in learning is sub Sumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive non-verbatim basis.

• Cognitive structure represents the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individuality identity.

• A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure.

• Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

• Ausubel emphasizes that sub Sumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structure not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest.

• Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.

The Conditions of Leaning

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction.

• This theory of learnings is based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe (1916 – 2002), an American educational psychologist best known for his “Condition of Learning “Gagñe pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training.

• Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is now considered to be good instruction. He also was involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer – based training and multimedia – based learning.

• Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption. The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning

• Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

• Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving.

The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level.

Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction. In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

• Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of geometric shapes generated triangles

• Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) – Example – pose question: “What is a rectangle?”

• Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example – review definitions of rectangle

• Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example – give definition of rectangle

• Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) – example – show example of how to create a rectangle

• Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask students to create 5 different examples

• Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as correct/incorrect

• Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all examples as correct/incorrect

• Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals.

The Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences his learning and performance in other situations. The following are the major theories concerning transfer of learning:

• Mental disciple discipline asserts that education is largely a matter of training or discipline the mind with vigorous mental exercises in the classics, grammar, logic mathematics, and science on the assumption that such training makes a person equally effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed.

• Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to a store of old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought into the conscious enable one to interpret a given experience.

• New ideas are learned through their being related to what is already in the appreciative mass. Apperception, therefore, consists of becoming consciously aware of an idea and assimilating it with other ideas which are already acquired.

• Identical elements are the theory of transfer of learning that is advocated by connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is facilitated in a second situation to the extent that it contains identical elements or factors which occurred in an earlier learning situation.

• Generalization was advocated by Charles Judd who said that there are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning or memorization without any meaning and generalized knowledge with many intellectual associations.

• Gestalt theory of transfer advances the idea of transposition or the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the form of generalizations, concepts, or insights which are developed in one learning situation and employed in other situations. For them, transfer of learning is best achieved when a person is in the best frame of mind and he is aware of the meaning of the situations and experiences as well as their practical application to his daily life activities.

The Motivation

Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. It is the stimulation of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no attraction toward that goal. It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest. This could explain why the individual always takes what he perceives to be the shortest route to his goals. The types of motivations are:

• Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of the individual to learn. It is based on the natural desire of the individual to satisfy his drives and motives without the need for reward and punishment.

• Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial devices which are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning. Rewards and praises like medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships and the like as well as punishments are good examples of this form of motivation.