China and Korea

Unit 8: South, East, and Southeast Asia

China's Historical Background

Chinese art is divided into historical periods named after the families who ruled China for vast stretches of time. These families formed dynasties and had tremendous impact on Chinese culture.
The first ruler of a united China was Emperor Shi Huangdi who reigned in the 3rd century BCE. He unified China politically and was responsible for codifying written Chinese, standardizing weights and measures, and establishing uniform currency. He began the Great Wall and a large majestic tomb.
In 1911, the Qing Dynasty collapsed and was replaced by chaotic rule under the Republic of China. In 1949, Communism triumphed under the rule of Mao Tse-tung.

Dates / Key Periods / Movements (China)

QIN DYNASTY (221 - 206 BCE) The first dynasty of Imperial China. Shortest dynasty in Chinese history with only two emperors. Focused on centralizing political power with a large military supported by a stable economy. The government sought to directly control the peasantry, conquering the labor force to take on ambitious projects such as the terracotta army of the first emperor, the beginning of the Great Wall of China, and a new national road system.

HAN DYNASTY (202 BCE - 220 CE) Separated into Western Han (202 BCE - 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25 - 220 CE), separated briefly by the Xin Dynasty. Considered the beginning of the "Golden Age" in Chinese history. The Han Dynasty saw the invention of paper and porcelain, sundials and water clocks to measure time, the development of the seismograph, and development of civil service and government. Emperors were under heaven's rule and their success was based on the opinions of the gods.

TANG DYNASTY (618 - 907 CE) Famous for territorial expansion, flourishing foreign trade, the arts including poetry and literature, religious lives, and luxuries of the aristocrats. A continuation of China's "Golden Age". Woodblock printing was developed during this time. Buddhism became a major influence on Chinese culture as well, with native Chinese sects gaining influence.

YUAN DYNASTY (1271 - 1368 CE) China's first foreign-led dynasty, founded by Genghis Khan and ruled by his grandson, Kublai Khan, both leaders of the Mongol Empire. The Mongols practiced Shamanism, but because they did not trust Chinese locals, they moved in a large number of Muslims who helped spread Islam in China.

MING DYNASTY (1368 - 1644 CE) Arose after a series of natural disasters. Replaced the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and doubled the growth of China's population as well as its economic prosperity. Most famous for the construction of The Forbidden City and the production of white and blue porcelain.

REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1912 - 1949 CE) The last Emperor of China was abdicated in 1912. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalist Party was proclaimed "provisional president" until Yuan Shikai (a former general) was president. In 1915, he proclaimed himself Emperor of China, but was politically and socially condemned and abdicated to re-establish the republic. After 1916, China was politically broken as the government in Beijing was powerless and regional warlords controlled the territory. In 1920, the Nationalist Party was able to reunify with political and military maneuvering called the Northern Expedition. The KMT moved the capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage" to transform China into a modern democratic state. The communist People's Liberation Army or "PLA" warred against the KMT since 1927, only unifying against Imperial Japan from 1937 to 1945 in the Second-Sino Japanese War. During this time, China was considered one of the four major allies in World War II, and after Japan surrendered in 1945, Taiwan was returned to Chinese control. After WWII, China was financially destitute and politically fractured, and civil war broke out between PLA and KMT.

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1949 CE - PRESENT) The Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the PLA claiming victory of mainland China, while the KMT retreated to Taiwan, Hainan, and surrounding islands. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman, Mao Zedong, proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The communist regime became popular with peasants in promoting land reform and executed between 1 and 2 million landlords. China also developed an independent industrial system with its own nuclear weapons. The CCP lead an economic and social campaign from 1958 to 1962 known as the "Great Leap Forward" which touted reconstruction of the country from an agrarian economy to communist society. This resulted in the deaths of 15 to 35 million people, mostly from starvation. In 1966, Mao and his allies began the Cultural Revolution; a violent sociopolitical purge with the goal of of preserving Chinese communism by the purging of capitalist and traditional elements of Chinese society and to spread "Mao Zedong Thought" as the dominant ideology of China. After Mao's death in 1976, the Gang of Four (four CCP officials) were arrested and condemned for the Cultural Revolution. 1978 brought about economic reforms with the CCP loosening government control over individual's lives and shifted the economy to a mixed open-market economy. China adopted its constitution in 1982.

Chinese Philosophies

Daoism

Begun by Laozi (604-531 BCE), a philosopher who believed in escaping society's pressures, achieving serenity, and working toward a oneness with nature.
Dao means "the Way" and is characterized as a religious journey that allows the pilgrim to wander meaningfully in search of self-expression.
Yin and yang are well known symbols.
Daoists emphasize individual expression and strongly embrace the philosophy of doing unto others.

Confucianism

Confucius (551-479 BCE) was a great Chinese philosopher who wrote about behavior, relationships, and duty in a series of precepts called The Analects.
Confucianism is built on a system of mutual respect and presents an ideal man whose attributes include loyalty, morality, generosity, and humanity.
Confucianism emphasizes respect for traditional values.

The Literati

Some artists rejected the restrictive nature of court art and developed a highly individualized style. These artists, called literati, worked as painters, furniture makers, and landscape architects in addition to working in other fields. The literati were often scholars rather than professional artists, and by tradition did not sell their works, but gave them to friends and connoisseurs.

Chinese Art Forms

Architecture

PAGODA - The design of the Buddhist stupa (associated with India) moved eastward with missionaries along the Silk Road and transformed itself into a pagoda. Pagoda's are built for a sacred purpose and achieve height through a repetition of forms.
COURTYARD-STYLE - Keeps the crowded outside world away and framed an atrium in which family members resided in comparative tranquility.
Built in harmony to Confucianism - elders would be honored and lived in a suite of rooms on the warmer north end of the courtyard. Children lived in the wings with servants in the south ends. The southeast corner was an entrance and the southwest was a lavatory.
Wood is the primary building material with tiled roofs that hang over structures and away from the wall to curve up (lets light in and keeps rain out).
Support comes from interior wooden columns that are grooved together and not nailed or connected with mortar.
Wooden architecture is painted to preserve the wood and enhance artistic effect.

Painting

Landscape paintings are highly prized in Chinese art, however they do not represent a particular forest or mountain. Instead, they reflect a philosophical idea with some parts being left open/barren and other parts crowded. This suggests the Daoist theory of yin and yang.
Painting comes in many formats: album leaves, fans, murals, and scrolls.
Scrolls come in two formats: the handscroll (horizontal and read on a desk or table) and the hanging scroll (supported by a pole and unraveled vertically.)
No scrolls were allowed on permanent view in a home and were meant to be studied, admired, and analyzed. They were stored away in specifically design cabinets.
Handscrolls are read right to left.
Silks are preferred and specially chosen by the artist to evoke certain moods. The silk is then attached to wooden dowels and secured at the ends.
In Chinese art, it is considered acceptable to comment on a work by writing poetry in praise of what has been read or seen. Commentaries are written on the last panel, called the colophon.

Porcelain

Ceramics were made by the coiling method in which clay is rolled onto a long, flat surace so that it resembles a long cord. Cords are then wrapped around themselves creating a sculpture, sometimes of considerable size. Edges were then smoothed out with the artist's hands or an instrument.
Later the clay was put on a round tray and made to revolve on a pedal, beginning the invention of the potter's wheel. The creation of ceramics on a potter's wheel is called "throwing."
Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) vases have a distinctive blue and white color. Cobalt used to make the iridescent blue was imported from Iran and greatly prized by China.

Patronage and Artistic Life

Calligraphy is the central artistic expression is traditional China, standing as a midpoint between poetry and painting.
Emperors and those that wanted state positions were known to have been accomplished calligraphers, painters, and poets.
Rather than letters, Chinese employs characters to represent a word or idea and therefore the artistic representation carries more meaning than a letter written in English.
Artists worked under the patronage of religion or the state, although a counterculture was developed by a group called the literati who painted for themselves, eschewing public commissions and personal fame.

Korea's Historical Background

The Silla Dynasty (57 BCE - 935 CE) had rulers who united with the Tang dynasty to solidify territorial gains on the Korean peninsula. They later waged war to expel the Chinese who had intended to form puppet governments throughout Korea.
Silla rulers established a royal burial ground in present-day Gyeongju with the largest tomb measuring over 260 feet in diameter and 400 feet long. The tomb contains a wide array of imperial gold regalia, jewelry, pottery, and metalwork.
In the 1930s, Japan invaded China and Korea and caused more upheaval to an already tumultuous time. By 1945, Japanese collapse left Korea divided into two and the subsequent Korean War lay the country in ruins. It is still divided today with South Korea maintaining a vibrant economy and a world leader in scientific and economic related fields. North Korea is economically stagnant.

Dates / Key Periods / Movements (Korea)

SILLA KINGDOM (57 BCE - 935 CE)

Located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea along with Baekje and Goguryeo. At Gyeongju, the capital of Silla, there are a number of tombs consisting of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. These tombs were more difficult to break into than tombs in other Korean kingdoms, so a large number of objects were preserved such as elaborate gold crowns and jewelry.

JOSEON DYNASTY (1392 - 1897 CE)

The Joseon Dynasty was the last dynasty of Korea and the longest-ruling Confucian dynasty. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new dynasty's state ideology and Buddhism was discouraged and persecuted. In the mid-Joseon dynasty, art shifted towards increased realism and academia, considered "true view" as an established distinct style of Korean art.

Korean Art Key Ideas:

Originated from Siberia. Heavily influenced by China and incorporates Confucian, Buddhist, and local shamanistic beliefs/practices. Artists favored the unadorned beauty of raw materials (ex: wood grain). Art avoids extremes and favors simplicity, considered gentler and mellow.

Artwork List ( * = in addition to 250)

Forbidden City, Beijing (15th C.)

>Front Gate

>Hall of Supreme Harmony

Funeral Banner of Lady Dai

Travelers Among Mountains and Streams

Portrait of Sin Sukju (Korean)

Chairman Mao en Route to Anuyan

Terracotta Warriors

Gold and jade crown (Korean)

The David Vases

Unit Vocabulary

BI - an ancient Chinese jade artifact with a circular disk shape and a central hole, used in rituals and burial practices.

COLOPHON - an inscription or note written by a scholar, collector, or later owner on a piece of art, typically on or around the artwork itself or on a mounting scroll.

CONFUCIANISM - a philosophical and ethical system founded by Confucius (Kong Fuzi) in the 5th century BCE in China. It emphasizes the importance of morality, social relationships, and justice, aiming to create a harmonious society through proper conduct and respect for tradition.

DAOISM/TAOISM - Daoism is a philosophy that emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao, the fundamental principle of the universe. It advocates for simplicity, spontaneity, and alignment with the natural order through practices that promote balance and harmony in life.

HANJA - Hanja are Chinese characters used in Korean writing to represent meanings and concepts, particularly in historical, formal, and scholarly contexts. While their use has declined in favor of Hangul, Hanja remains an important part of Korea's linguistic and cultural heritage.

LITERATI - refers to the educated, scholarly class in traditional China, particularly from the Tang (618–907) to the Qing (1644–1912) dynasties. They were known for their involvement in literature, art, and governance, and were highly esteemed for their moral integrity and scholarly achievements. Typically guided by Confucianism.

PAGODA - a multi-tiered tower found in East Asian architecture, primarily associated with religious and ceremonial functions. Its distinctive design emphasizes verticality and balance, reflecting its cultural and spiritual significance.

PORCELAIN - a high-quality ceramic material known for its whiteness, translucency, and strength. It is made by firing a mixture of clay, kaolin (a type of white clay), and other materials at high temperatures.

YIN & YANG - Daoism incorporates the concept of yin and yang, representing complementary and interconnected forces or energies. The balance of these opposing yet complementary forces is essential for harmony and stability in the universe.

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