Ancient Egypt

Unit 2: Ancient Mediterranean (New)

Historical Background

Egyptian history is a constant ebb and flow of dynastic fortunes, at times at the height of its powers, other times invdaded by jealous neighbors or wracked by internal feuds.
Historical Egypt begins with the unification of the country under King Narmer in predynastic times. The subsequent early dynasties are known as the Old Kingdom, featuring monuments to the dead, called pyramids.
After a period of anarchy, Mentihotep II unified Egypt for a second time in a period called the Middle Kingdom where pyramid building was abandoned for smaller and less expensive rock-cut tombs.
Invaders from Asia swept through bringing technological advanced along with domination but soon Egyptians prevailed to remove the foreigners, embarking on the New Kingdom.
A New Kingdom pharoah, Akhenaten, abandoned the worship of many gods and substituting them for one god, Aten. Aten represented as a sun disk emanating rays instead of former gods with human and/or animal symbols. This marked the Amarna period and promoted artistic changes, but they did not survive after Akhenaten's death.
Egypt finally fell prey to the ambitions of Persia, Assyria, and Greece and ultimately ended at the hands of Rome in 30 BCE.
Modern Egyptology began with the 1799 discovery of the Rosetta Stone which aided in translating hieroglyphics into modern languages.
1922 - scramble to uncover Egyptian artifacts began with the discovery of King Tutankhamen's tomb by Howard Carter.

DATES / HISTORY / KEY PERIODS

Predynastic & Early Dynastic

c. 5000 to 2686 BCE

Predynastic Egypt refers to the period in Egyptian history before the establishment of the First Dynasty around 3100 BCE. It spans from the earliest evidence of human settlement in the Nile Valley up to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. This era is characterized by the gradual development of complex societies, advancements in agriculture, and the formation of distinct cultural and social practices.
The Predynastic period culminated in the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a single ruler, traditionally attributed to Narmer (or Menes), which marked the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period and the rise of the Pharaonic state.

Old Kingdom & 1st Intermediate Period

c. 2686-2030 BCE

Often referred to as the "Age of the Pyramids" due to the construction of the iconic pyramids at Giza and the establishment of a strong, centralized state.
This period saw the consolidation of political power in the hands of the Pharaoh, who was considered a divine ruler. The central government strengthened, and the role of the Pharaoh became more institutionalized.
The Old Kingdom is noted for its artistic achievements, including elaborate tombs, statues, and wall reliefs. These works often depicted the Pharaoh and nobility, emphasizing their divine status and ensuring their immortality.

Middle Kingdom & 2nd Intermediate Period

c. 2030-1540 BCE

Often considered a period of stability, consolidation, and cultural flourishing following the political fragmentation of the First Intermediate Period.
The Middle Kingdom is known for its rich literary output, including tales, wisdom literature, and religious texts. Art and architecture flourished, with notable achievements including rock-cut tombs and temples, as well as advances in sculpture and painting.

New Kingdom & 3rd Intermediate Period

c. 1550-713 BCE

Often regarded as the height of ancient Egyptian civilization, was marked by its extensive territorial expansion, prosperity, and monumental achievements.
This era is renowned for its impressive architectural projects, including the construction of temples like Karnak and Luxor, and tombs in the Valley of the Kings. The grandeur of temples and tombs reflected the power and divine status of the Pharaohs.
The Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE) is a brief but significant era within the New Kingdom, characterized by radical changes in art, religion, and politics. Pharaoh Akhenaten (originally Amenhotep IV) introduced major religious reforms by establishing Aten, the sun disk, as the central deity. This shift towards monotheism was a radical departure from traditional polytheistic worship.
The Amarna style of art is distinct for its naturalism and realism, a departure from the idealized forms of previous periods. Art from this era often depicted the royal family in intimate and informal settings, showcasing physical imperfections and everyday activities.

Late Period and Ptolemaic and Roman Periods = c. 713 BCE to 395 CE

- - Characterized by a fusion of Greek and Egyptian styles, reflecting the cultural blending of the period (Cleopatra VII). This era is often ignored or sometimes combined with the Third Intermediate Period because, as with that period, it is interpreted as the final decline of Egyptian culture following the first Persian invasion of 525 BCE. While there was a strong adherence to traditional forms, there was less innovation compared to earlier periods. Art from the Late Period is often seen as more conservative, reflecting a focus on maintaining established traditions rather than experimenting with new styles.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: The culture, beliefs, and physical settings of a region play an important role in the creation, subject matter, and siting of works of art.

Essential Knowledge

Egyptian art expresses the ideas of permanence, rebirth, and eternity.
Egyptian figure styles follow a formula that expresses differences in status.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art making is influenced by available materials and processes.

Essential Knowledge

Egyptians developed the use of the clerestory to provide light into darkened interiors.
The god-king is expressed in monumental stone structures that Egypt has become famous for.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Cultural interaction through war, trade, and travel can influence art and art making.

Essential Knowledge

There are many similarities among artistic styles in Egypt, which indicates a vibrant exchange of ideas.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art and art making can be influenced by a variety of concerns including audience, function, and patron.

Essential Knowledge

Egyptian art is sometimes centered on elaborate funerary practices and the numerous artifacts associated with them.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art history is best understood through an evolving tradition of theories and interpretations.

Essential Knowledge

The study of art history is shaped by changing analyses based on scholarship, theories, context, and written records.

Patronage and Artistic Life

Architecture: Most Egyptian architecture was designed and executed by highly skilled craftsmen and artisans, not by slaves, as tradition alleges.

Mummification: became a national industry handled by embalming experts who were paid handsomely.

Artists: Imhotep, history's first recorded artist, supervised all work under his direction. Artists were likely ordained priests of Ptah, the god who created the world in Egyptian mythology. Imhotep was also the royal builder under King Djoser and erected the first stepped pyramid. Imhotep became deified and worshipped as a god of widsom, astronomy, architecture, and medicine.

Architecture

Necropolis = pyramids were never built alone but as part of a great complex dedicated to the worship of the spirits of the dead and preservation of an individual's ka, or soul. Complexes were built on the west side of the Nile so that the pharaoh waster interred in the direction of the setting sun, while the temples on the east side faced the rising sun.
Mastabas = Egyptians first buried their dead in a mastaba, or a simple tomb that has four sloping sides and an entrance for mourners to bring offerings to the deceased. The body was buried beneath the mastaba in an inaccessible area for only the spirit to enter,.
Pyramids = the archetypal pyramids became associated with Giza. Interiors included false doors so that the ka could come adn go when summoned by the faithful. Built without mortar from stone blocks. Once the dead were buried, no one was meant to enter and the pyramids were sealed. Pyramids' sides point to the cardinal directions. The ben-ben stone formed the prototype and capstone of the pyramids.
Great Sphinx = hewn from a single great rock as a monumental sculpture.
In the New Kingdom, temples continued to be built into the sides of rock formations, however some freestanding monuments contained massive pylons that lay a central courtyard to greet the worshipper. Gods were housed in sacred areas surrounded by hypostyle halls. Clerestory "windows" above these columns allowed for natural light and air to enter these spaces. Columns in the New Kingdom were based on plant shapes: lotus, palm, papyrus.

Painting and Sculpture

Hieroglyphics = describe the deceased and their accomplishments, completing their role in the afterlife. Writing appears on relief sculpture and papyrus.
Human Figure = Egyptians believed that supernatural forces were constantly at work and needed continuous worship and funerary art was dedicated to this idea of permanence. Artists wanted to represent the human form as completely as possible to follow them into the afterlife.
Canon of proportions = little individuality between figures. Frontal shoulders with the rest of the body (except for the eye) in profile. Men are taller than women and are painted brown or red. Women are shorter, and children are shorter still, and often painted yellow. Shading is very rare. Artists would place a grid over the areas to be painted and outline the figures accordingly.
Men and women are represented in a calm manner; violence is only shown in moments of sacrificing animals or overthrowing evil forces.
Amarna Period = relaxation of canon rules. Softer figures, slacked jaws, protruding stomachs, thin arms, etc.
Relief sculptures are carved for outdoor display and made for drama to become more visible to the viewer.

Artwork List ( * = in addition to 250)

Palette of Narmer

Seated Scribe

Great Pyramids and Sphinx

King Menkaura and his queen

Temple of Amun-Re

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

> Kneeling statue

Akenaton, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters

Nefertiti Bust*

Tutankhamen's Tomb, Innermost Coffin

Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer, Book of the Dead

Unit Vocabulary

ANKH: an Egyptian symbol of life

AXIAL PLAN: a building with an elongated ground plan

CLERESTORY: a roof that rises above lower roofs and thus has window space beneath

ENGAGED COLUMN: a column that is not freestanding but attached to a wall

HIEROGLYPHICS: Egyptian writing using symbols or pictures as characters

HYPOSTYLE: a hall that has a roof supported by a dense thicket of columns

IN SITU: a Latin expression that means that something is in its original location

KA: the soul, or spiritual essence, of a human being that either ascends to heaven or can live in an Egyptian statue of itself

MASTABA: Arabic for "bench," a low, flat-roofed Egyptian tomb with sides sloping down to the ground

NECROPOLIS: literally, a "city of the dead," a large burial area

PAPYRUS: a tall aquatic plant whose fiber is used as a writing surface in ancient Egypt

PERISTYLE: a colonnade surrounding a building or enclosing a courtyard

PYLON: a monumental gateway to an Egyptian temple marked by two flat, sloping walls between which is a smaller entrance

RESERVE COLUMN: a column that is cut away from rock but has no support function

SARCOPHAGUS: a stone coffin

SUNKEN RELIEF: a carving in which the outlines of figures are deeply carved into a surface so that the figures seem to project forward

Resources

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