Ground School Notes

Helicopter Private Pilot

Ground School

Lesson Plans

1 - 17

By:

Athena Roberts

Lesson 1

3.0 Hours Ground Training

Objectives

This lesson will introduce the student to the basic R-22 helicopter components, systems, and instruments.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Robinson R-22 Pilot Operating Handbook (POH)- sections 1 and 2

The Rotorcraft Flying Handbook- chapters 1,2, 3, and 4

Private Pilot Test Prep- Chapter 2 and 3.

Other materials may be needed for class.

Lesson Content

1. Helicopter Components

Main rotor

Symmetrical blade

2 blades

Diameter 25'2"

Chord line 7.2"

Free to teeter and cone, rigid inplane

Under slung

Aluminum honeycomb w/ stainless steel leading edge

Rotates counter-clockwise (viewed from top)

1 lb tip weight on each blade

Hole on each end to release air as rotor spins

Tip speed 672 FPS @ 100% RPM

530 RPM @ 104%

Semi-rigid

-8 degree twist.

Tail rotor

Semi-rigid

Free to teeter, rigid inplane

Asymmetrical blades

Counter-clockwise rotation

Viewed from tail rotor side

Pre-cone 1°11'

Pivots on 45° delta hinge

To change AoA as it flaps

All metal blades

42" diameter

4" chord line

Tip speed 599 FPS @ 100% RPM

3395.6 RPM @ 104% RPM.

Powerplant (Engine)

Lycoming O-360-J2A

Horizontally Opposed

361 cu in.

180 hp

Derated 145 hp

131 max hp for 5 min

124 hp max continuous

Oil & air cooled via direct drive squirrel cage blower fan

4 cylinders

Wet sump oil system

2652 rpm @ 104% rpm

Carbureted

Normally aspirated

Gravity fed fuel system

Overhead valve

Dual magneto for redundancy and performance.

Lose 7 hp/1000' DA

Swash plate assembly

Transmits inputs of cyclic and collective to main rotor

Scissor Arm

Attaches rotating swash plate to main rotor drive shaft so that it will keep up with the shaft instead of being dragged behind and binding up

Drive system diagram

Gear boxes

Single-stage spiral bevel gear set

Splash lubricated

Bearings

Drive train

Tailcone (Empennage)

Tail cone is a monocoque structure - tin can

Vertical stabilizer

Horizontal stabilizer

Clutch (Actuator motor)

Save the starter by allowing the engine to start w/o spinning the rotor system.

Actuator motor puts tension on the belts based on a set load required to keep tension.

Allows constant tension as belts warm up & stretch.

Landing gear

Spring & yield skid type

If tail skid within 36” of ground

Crosstube must be replaced

2. Flight Controls

Cyclic

Tilts the tip path plane

In the direction of horizontal flight desired

Named because it changes each blade’s pitch as it cycles around

Collective

Primary altitude control & manifold pressure control

Named because it changes pitch of all blade by amount at the same time

Throttle

Regulates engine rpm in conjunction with:

Mechanical Correlator

Mechanical linkage

Increases throttle w/ increase in collective

Electronic Governor

Regulates engine rpm @ 102-104% electronically

Becomes active @ 80% rpm

Helps the correlator

During large power changes

During rest of flight

Pedals

Control antitorque

Inflight keeps aircraft an trim

Maintains heading during hover

Counteract torque from engine

When driving main rotor system.

3. Electrical System

Battery

12 volts

25 amp/hours

For starting engine & backup for alternator failure

Master switch only turns on battery & not alternator.

Alternator

14 volts

60 amp

54 amp max load

Powers whole system after start.

Circuit breakers

Push to reset

Magnetos

Two magnetos.

Generates electricity to spark plugs

Engine driven

Independent of electrical system

Fires lower plugs on its side and

Upper plugs on other side.

Fuses

Clutch Actuator fuse

Located near test switch panel

Spare fuse

Next to Clutch Actuator fuse

Clock fuse

Located near gascolator

Aircraft lights

Navigation (Position) lights

Anti-collision light

Landing lights

Instrument panel lights

Map light

4. Fuel and Fuel Systems

Proper fuel

100LL (blue)

Supplemental fuel grades (others we can use)

100/130 (green)

91/96 (blue)

Use next higher grade if one is not available

Fuel system diagram and operation

Gravity feed

Fuel contamination

1) Preventative measures

Make sure you get the right fuel (check the label)

Fill up tanks (if weight allows) to prevent condensation

2) Elimination measures

Purge valves, mechanics

Story: Topping off tanks in wrong helicopter

Improper fuel

Wrong fuel: Jet A (clear), 80/87 (red)

Mixed fuels are clear

Detonation

Explosive combustion of fuel-air mixture

5. Oil and Oil Systems

Type and quantity

4-6 quarts

Aeroshell 100W + SAE 50 Ashless Dispersant

Oil system operation

Wet sump system (oil settles in pan)

Oil circulates through oil cooler.

Differences between wet and dry sump oil systems

Wet

Oil stays in oil sump when engine not running

Dry

Oil stays out of sump in special tank when engine not running

Oil

1. Cleans

2. Cools

3. Lubricates

4. Distributes heat evenly throughout engine

5. Controls rpm via governor

6. Leaks

6. Instruments- Function and Limitations

Engine

1) Dual Tachometer

Engine (left):

60-70% yellow arc

90-101% red arc

101-104% green arc

104-110% red arc.

Rotor (right):

60-70% yellow arc

90% red line

90-101% yellow arc

101-104% green arc

104-110% yellow arc

110% red line

60-70%: Sympathetic resonance region

Similar rpm in engine, tail rotor, & main rotor can cause catastrophic failure over time in tail rotor drive shaft.

Low rotor rpm horn comes on @ 97% because old R22 green arc was 97-104%

2) Manifold Pressure

Yellow arc: 19.6” - 24.1” Hg

Red line: 24.1” Hg

Flight - function, markings, & limitations

1) Pitot-static system – measures pressure differentials

a) Pitot-static source

Pitot – located front of main rotor mast (do not blow in tube)

Static – located behind aft cowling door

b) Alternate pitot-static source

None for R22

c) Airspeed indicator

Measures ram air pressure compensated for static air pressure.

d) Pressure altimeter

Measure height above or below pressure setting pilots sets in coleman window. Aneroid wafer.

Sensitive altimeter – Adjustable for barometric pressure

e) Vertical speed indicator

Has a calibrated leak. Aneroid wafer

2) Magnetic compass

Points to magnetic north.

Deviation

Compass error due to instrumentation in the helicopter

Check “Deviation Card” in helicopter

Shown in 30° increments.

Variation

Difference between true & magnetic north

Isogonic lines.

Magnetic dip

North end of compass dips down

Greater as you head north.

UNOS

Undershoot North, Overshoot South (turns to N or S)

ANDS

Accelerate North, Decelerate South (on E-W headings)

NO

North Opposite

When turning from a north heading, & turning to E or W heading, any turn will read in the opposite direction on compass initially.

Max error for each of these is equal to degrees North or South latitude

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of

the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or

greater.

LESSON 2

3.0 Hours Ground Training

Objectives

This lesson will give the student a basic understanding of aerodynamics and principles relative to helicopter flight.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Rotorcraft Flying Handbook- chapters 2 and 3 and the Private Pilot Test Prep-chapters 1,2, and 3. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSSON CONTENT

1. The Four Forces

a. Lift

The combination of higher pressure on the lower surface and lower pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil

b. Drag

The force that resists motion

c. Thrust

Tilts the tip path plane in the desired direction.

d. Weight

Gross weight must be overcome for flight

Result of gravitational attraction between the aircraft’s mass and the Earth’s mass.

2. Airfoils

Leading edge

Trailing edge

Chord line

Imaginary line that runs from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

Upper camber

Lower camber

Tip path plane

Plane that the tips of the of the rotor blades travel along

Plane of rotation

Plane that the rotor hub rotates on

Pitch angle-Mechanical Angle

Angle between chord line and tip path plane

Changed with collective which indirectly affects AoA

Relative Wind

Wind which is always parallel and opposite to flight path

Angle of attack (AOA, µ)-Aerodynamic angle

Angle between chord line and relative wind

Center of Pressure

The imaginary point on the chord line where the resultant of all aerodynamic forces are considered to be concentrated

Symmetrical Versus Unsymmetrical (Asymmetrical)

Asymmetrical airfoils

Must be stronger

Center of pressure will change as AoA changes.

Less stable

Center of pressure moves

Allow higher forward airspeeds

For helicopters

Symmetrical airfoils

More stable

Center of Pressure changes very little

Less expensive to make

Most main rotors are symmetrical airfoils.

3. Factors Affecting Lift and Drag

Daniel Bernoulli’s Theorem (Principle)

As the velocity of a fluid increases, its internal pressure decreases

Produces 70% of lift

Sir Isaac Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

1. A body in motion will remain in motion & a body at rest will remain at rest until acted on by an outside force.

2. F = MA

3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Produces 30% of lift

Lift Equation (L = C_L ½ρ V² S)

Coefficient of lift

(C_L)

AOA – Angle of Attack

Indirectly affected by pilot through Pitch Angle change

One half air density

½ρ

Static Pressure

Velocity of the airfoil squared

V²

Affected by pilot

Surface area of the airfoil

S

Blade stall (Exceeding critical AOA)

Occurs when critical AoA is exceeded

Usually on retreating blade in forward flight

Separation of air flow from airfoil

Ceases to produce lift

Fix by

Lowering collective

Roll on Throttle

Drag

Induced Drag

Caused by the production of lift

Decreases with an increase in airspeed.

Parasite Drag

Caused by all non-lifting surfaces

Increases with an increase in airspeed

Profile Drag

Caused by frictional resistance of air moving over the airfoil. Moderately increases with an increase in airspeed.

Form Drag

From resistance to air moving around a particular shape

Skin Drag

From friction between the air and the surface

Total drag curve diagram

Lowest drag speed

R22 53 KIAS

Also

Max rate of climb

Min rate of descent

Max endurance.

Maximum range speed

R22 83 KIAS

4. The Three Axes

Longitudinal

Roll

Cyclic

Lateral

Pitch

Cyclic

Vertical

Yaw

Pedals

5. Torque

Newton’s third law of motion

Generated by engine when turning main rotor.

No torque in autorotation

No engine power

Tail rotor thrust (anti-torque)

Controlling torque

Pedals

Primary

Throttle

Emergencies only

6. Rotor Systems

Blade movements

Feather

Change of blade pitch along its spanwise axis

Flap

Rise an fall of blade is it travels around hub

Lead/lag (Hunting)

Forward and aft movement of blade as it travels around hub

Rigid

Feathers only

Requires a very strong blade

Usually four blades

Semi-rigid

Feathers and flaps as a unit

Usually 2 blades

Fully articulated

Blades Flap, Feather, lead/lag (hunting)

All independently of each other

Usually 3 blades or more

More blades

Less noise

Takes more space to store

Higher cost

Higher maintenance

Usually better performance @ high DA

Less blades

More noise

Less space to store

Lower cost

Less maintenance

Usually less performance @ high DA

7. Vibrations

a. Resonance

1) Sympathetic

60-70% rpm - engine & tail rotor are operating at almost equal frequencies causing potential tail rotor drive shaft failure.

2) Ground

Blades get out of sync & cause rotor to be out of balance

Fully articulated rotor

Will destroy copter in 7-8 seconds

Often a problem in 3-bladed rotors.

Corrective action

If @ operating rpm

Lift off

If not @ operating rpm

Shut down and lower collective

If starting up

Shut down.

b. Low frequency

100-400 cycles/minute

Main rotor (felt through cyclic)

Tracking issue causes up & down

Balance issue causes side-to-side

c. Medium Frequency

1000-4000 cycles/minute

Engine (felt through seat)

d. High Frequency

2000 cycles/minute

Tail rotor (felt through pedals)

e. Previous frequencies are R22 specific.

Turbine: Medium – tail rotor, high – engine

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 3

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will continue to gain an understanding of the principles of helicopter flight.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Rotorcraft Flying Handbook- chapters 2 and 3 and the Private Pilot Test Prep- chapters 1,2, and 3. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Hovering Flight

Lift and thrust resultants

Weight and drag resultants

Axis of rotation

An imaginary line about which the rotor rotates always perpendicular to the tip path plane

Translating tendency or “drift”

The helicopter has a tendency to move in the direction of tail rotor thrust.

R22 drift is to the right in R22

Correct with left cyclic

Direction of airflow (Downward through the disc)

Downward in powered flight

Upward in unpowered flight

Draw picture of both examples

Ground effect

Improves lift by reducing induced flow

Thus increasing angle of attack.

Occurs when hovering within one rotor disk of the ground

(measured from to main rotor to the ground)

IGE B In Ground Effect

OGE B Out of Ground Effect.

IGE

Air doesn’t have chance to accelerate

Some air gets deflected away to allow for cleaner air

Pitch Angle is the same.

OGE hover

Blade tip vortices come in at a more vertical angle

Requires a greater pitch angle to get the same AoA as in IGE hover

Greater pitch angle rquires more power.

Induced flow is inversely proportional to AoA

Large induced flow causes small AoA

Small induced flow causes larger AoA

No wind left-pedal-turn OGE hover

Requires the most power

Check R-22 POH hover tables

Forward, sideward, and rearward hovering

Lift and thrust resultant

Weight and drag resultant

Gyroscopic precession

(Phase Lag)

The maximum reaction of a spinning body to an input will occur 90° later in the direction of rotation.

Advanced Angle

The mechanical correction for gyroscopic precession

The part that does this is the pitch horn on the R22 & R44

73° in R22 & R44

Pendular action

The helicopter being suspended from one single point

allows it to oscillate in any direction 360°.

What makes the helicopter so maneuverable

Exacerbated by over-controlling.

Static Rollover (R22)

Tilt past 42° causes CG to pass over skid

Non-recoverable

Dynamic Rollover (R22)

Hazards

Will destroy helicopter

Once roll goes past 15°

It’s non-recoverable with cyclic only

Reason it Can Happen

Cyclic only able to tilt 9° in any direction

Rollover magnified by main rotor thrust

Likely to occur when skid stuck or caught when

Taking off and during slope landings

Need:

1. Rolling moment

2. Pivot Point

3. Thrust greater than weight

Recovery Procedure

Opposite cyclic & lower collective

To Prevent:

1. Two-step pickup

2. Hover 3 - 5 feet

2. Forward Flight

Lift and thrust resultant

Weight and drag resultant

Coning

Caused by the combination of lift & centrifugal force.

Large coning angles caused by

High gross weight

High density altitude

Low rotor rpm.

High G maneuvers

Low rotor rpm blade stall

Hazards

Will Kill You

Causes

Occurs @ 80% rpm +1%/1000' DA

Not recoverable

Low rpm horn goes off @ 97%.

Forward Flight

Retreating blade stalls

Starts flapping down

Rotor system no longer able to support helicopter

Fall like a rock

Advancing blade still producing lift

Flaps up

Tailboom chop

From retreating main rotor blade

Hover

Both blades stall

Autorotation

Same as for forward flight

RHC Safety Notice 10 & 24

Corrective Action

Lower Collective

Roll on Throttle

Must be an immediate conditioned reaction

Translational lift

Additional lift obtained when entering horizontal flight

Due to a reduction of induced flow.

Begins @ 1 knot.

Effective Translational Lift (ETL)

When translational lift becomes noticeable by the pilot

Occurs @ 16 - 24 knots.

Indications

Nose Pitch Up

From increased lift

Yaw Left

From increased tail rotor effectiveness

Right Roll

Gyroscopic procession causes increased lift on left side of rotor

Corrective Action

Forward & Left Cyclic

Right Pedal

Transverse flow effect

Happens 10 - 20 knots

Indications

Right roll & shudder

Corrective action

Left cyclic

Conservation of Angular Momentum and Coriolis effect

As a spinning body’s mass moves closer to its center of mass (axis of rotation), its rate of rotation will increase.

Flapping causes mass to move closer to axis of rotation.

Corrected for with

Underslung rotor on a semi-rigid system

Lead-lag on a fully articulated system.

If not corrected for, helicopter would experience retreating blade stall at a very low speed

AKA: Conservation of Angular Momentum

Regular Rotor Versus Underslung Rotor

Dissymmetry of lift

The lift differential that exists between the advancing and retreating main rotor blades caused by unequal relative velocities.

Advancing and retreating sides of the rotor disc

Biggest limiter of helicopter forward speed.

Correction

Blade flapping

Downward flapping increases AoA

Upward flapping decreases AoA.

Retreating blade stall (RBS)

Will kill you if ignored

Not like low rotor rpm stall

Rotor still producing lift

Occurs at high forward airspeeds

The retreating blade reaches its critical AoA

Happens sooner in turbulence and steep turns

Starts at blade tip and works its way out.

Indications

Shudder

Nose pitches up

Telling you to slow down

Left roll.

Corrective Action

Lower collective, Aft cyclic.

Fastest speed recorded in an R22 is 156 kts

There was still no RBS

102 Vne relates to

Max aft CG and ¾” from max forward cyclic.

Cyclic feathering

Periodic and automatic pitch change of the rotor blades independently of each other.

Low-G conditions

Hazards

Will Kill You

Uncommanded very rapid right roll

Rapid loss of altitude

Mast bumping

From applying left cyclic to stop rapid right roll

Main rotor separation in 1-2 seconds

Causes

Turbulence

Abrupt forward cyclic movement

Immediately after a climb

During forward flight

Need atleast 40 KIAS

Can’t get Low-G from diving from a hover

Corrections

1. GENTLE Aft cyclic until positive G established

2. Correct for roll.

3. You will lose lots of altitude during correction

3. Settling with power (Vortex ring state)

Hazards

Can Kill You

Impact with ground

Causes

When the helicopter is settling into its own downwash

Conditions

Less than 30 kts

Atleast 20% power

Descent greater than 300 FPM.

Indications

Shudder

Increased rate of descent that

Gets worse as more collective is added

Random roll, pitch, & yaw.

Corrections

(1)

Lower collective (if altitude permits)

Forward cyclic

Climb when A/S starts to increase

(2)

Enter autorotation (if altitude permits).

4. Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)

Aerodynamic cause

Not mechanical

Causes

Normally occurs at speeds 10-30 kts in windy conditions

Hazards

Cause accident

Kill People with tail rotor

Damage property

Uncommanded right yaw

Corrections

Increase forward airspeed

Put nose into wind

Apply full pedal.

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 4

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to the aerodynamics of turns and autorotations.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Robinson R-22 Pilot Operating Handbook (POH)- section 3, the Rotorcraft Flying Handbook- chapter 3, and the Private Pilot Test Prep- chapters 1,2, and 3. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. The Turn

Lift components in a turn

Vertical component (Lift)

To resist gravity

Horizontal component (Centripetal force)

Causes aircraft to turn

Total lift resultant

Combination of the two

Loads and load factor

Vertical component (Gross weight)

Max gross weight is based on all conditions of flight

Limitations are based on all aspects of flight.

Horizontal component (Centrifugal force)

Force that resists centripetal force

Fictitious force

Actually result of Newton’s 3^rd Law

Load factor resultant

Combination of the two

Load on an airframe expressed in “G’s”

Definition (G’s)

Force felt through seat

Stress on the aircraft expressed as multiples of the Earth’s gravity

How conditions of flight affect load

Straight and level

1G

Turns

Greater than 1G if altitude maintained

Flares

Load greater than 1G: more aggressive flare = more G

Angle of bank verse angle of attack

Greater bank requires greater angle of attack to maintain altitude

Angle of bank verse rate of turn

Greater angle of bank increases rate of turn if airspeed constant

Effect of angle of bank on load factor

Only if altitude maintained

30° Bank = 1.15 G’s or 115% of gross weight

45° Bank = 1.4 G’s or 140% of gross weight

60° Bank = 2 G’s or 200% of gross weight

75° Bank = 3.86 G’s or 386% of gross weight

Effect of turbulence and high gross weight

Increase Load Factor

Effect of density altitude and pilot technique

Increase Load Factor

2. Autorotative Descents

Definition

Descending flight where power and rpm come from relative wind.

Free wheeling unit (Sprag clutch)

Location

Upper pulley

Function

Allows autorotation to occur by enabling rotor system to spin without having to drive the engine

Direction of airflow (Upward through the disc)

Draw a picture

Energy management in forward flight

Story: 180° Autorotations on my Commercial Check Ride

Kinetic energy-energy in motion

Airspeed

Manufacturer’s minimum autorotational airspeed

65 KIAS

Minimum rate of descent airspeed

53 KIAS

Maximum glide distance configuration

75 KIAS, 90% RPM, 4:1 glide ratio

Rotor RPM

In turns

Load factor causes rpm to increase

Add collective to maintain rpm

Effect of flares

Load factor causes rpm to increase

Effect of updrafts and downdrafts

Updraft - Increase rpm

Downdraft - decrease rpm

Potential energy-energy available for transfer

Altitude (AGL)

lose 46' to gain 100 hp/sec

Minimum safe altitudes for helicopters

The most important thing during all aspects of flight is to have a suitable area for a forced landing.

Recommended takeoff profile

Height verse velocity diagram (Dead man’s curve)

Weight plays a large factor in autorotation.

More weight is better than less weight

Transferring energy during autorotation

Collective

R22 Rotor will stall in 1.1 sec if collective not lowered.

Tip weights give 0.1 sec

Time relates to high power settings

Raise collective

Increase alt, decrease rpm, decrease rate of descent

Lower collective

Decrease alt, increase rpm, increase rate of descent

Story: Surprise throttle chop during Commercial Check Ride

Cyclic

Forward cyclic

Increase A/S, decrease rpm, increase rate of descent

Aft cyclic

Decrease A/S, increase rpm, decrease rate of descent

Procedure for power failure above 500 feet AGL

Lower Collective

Right Pedal

Pitch for 65 KIAS

Stay in Trim

See R22 POH

Air restart procedure

Rarely done – engine failed for a reason

Try only if you have lots of time

See R22 POH

Procedure for power failure

Between 8 feet and 500 feet AGL

See R22 POH

Regions of the rotor disc during autorotation

Stalled

Has low relative air velocity. 25% of rotor

Driving

Has more lift & thrust than drag. 25-75% of rotor

Driven

Produces a lot of lift but is still net taker of energy due to induced & profile drag. Larger on right during forward flight due to higher relative velocity and increase in AoA. 25-30% of rotor

Regions moving to left in forward flight assumes a counter-clockwise rotating main rotor.

Hovering autorotations

Torque effect

Eliminated - add right pedal to maintain heading

Translating tendency or drift

Eliminated - add right cyclic to maintain position

Procedure for power failure below 8 feet AGL

See R22 POH

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 5

6.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to the helicopter flight manual (POH).

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Robinson R-22 Pilot Operating Handbook- all sections. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. The R22 Helicopter’s Pilot Operating Handbook

Section 1- General

Descriptive data

Definitions

Section 2- Limitations

Definitions

Color code for instruments markings

Red

Yellow

Green

Airspeed

Velocity never exceed (VNE)

Reason it exists on R22

Rotors

RPM Power on limits

RPM Power off limits

Why they are different

RPM sensor is on shaft just aft of rotor brake

Magnetic pickup

2 magnets – 1 power on, 1 power off

Engine

RPM Limits

RPM sensor on right magneto

Cylinder head temperature limits (CHT)

Sensor in #4 cylinder (hottest) due to least amount of cooling, oil cooler on same side.

Oil temperature limits

Sensor behind oil filter on assy case

Oil pressure limits

Oil quantity limits

Manifold pressure limits (MAP)

Sensor on intake for #3 cylinder

Carburetor air temperature (CAT)

LOW RPM warning – on switch activated by collective

OAT gauge – under aircraft

Weight and balance

Maximum gross weight

Minimum gross weight

Maximum seat weight

Maximum in either baggage compartment

Minimum solo pilot weight

Center of gravity limits

Flight and maneuver limitations

Kinds of operation limitations

Fuel Limitations

Approved fuel grades

Main tank capacity and usable amounts (US Gallons)

Aux tank capacity and usable amounts (US Gallons)

Placards- required for flight

Importance

Locations

Wind limitations

Surface wind limitations

Turbulence limitations

Section 3- Emergency procedures

Definitions

Land immediately

Land as soon as practical

Power failure general

Power failure above 500 feet AGL

Power failure between 8 and 500 feet AGL

Power failure below 8 feet AGL

Ditching- Power off

Ditching- Power on

Loss of tail rotor thrust during forward flight- Mechanical

Loss of tail rotor thrust during hover- Mechanical

Engine fire during start on ground

Fire in flight

Electrical fire in flight

Tachometer failure

Governor failure

Warning\Caution lights (12 total lights)

Oil – Red light

Carbon Monoxide – Red Light

Main rotor temperature (MR TEMP)

Main rotor chip (MR CHIP)

Tail rotor chip (TR CHIP)

Low fuel

Clutch (Actuator motor)

Alternator (ALT)

Rotor brake

Starter-on

Governor-off (GOV OFF)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Low rotor RPM

Accompanied by low rotor RPM horn

Right roll in low- “G” condition

Uncommanded pitch, roll, or yaw resulting from flight in turbulence

Inadvertent encounter with moderate, severe, or extreme turbulence

Section 4- Normal procedures

Airspeeds for safe operation

Takeoff and climbs

Maximum rate of climb

Maximum range

Landing approach

Autorotation

Preflight checks

Before starting engine

Starting engine and run-up

Takeoff procedure

Cruise flight

Doors-off operation

Practice autorotation- Power recovery

Carburetor ice (Carb ice)

Boyle’s gas law

Reduction in pressure causes reduction in temperature

Conditions for development and indications

Lycoming states 20- 90 degrees F

Below 18 inches of Mercury (“Hg)

High humidity

Engine roughness. Engine quits

Use of carburetor heat

Use carb heat to keep temp out of yellow range or when MP is below 18" Hg

Use of carb heat assist

Increases & reduces carb heat as collective is raised & lowered

Approach and landing

Shutdown procedure

Noise abatement

R22 normal procedures note

Main rotor stall

Mast bumping

Section 5- Performance

Demonstrated operating temperature

Performance charts

Airspeed calibration

Density altitude (DA) chart

IGE hover ceiling verse gross weight

OGE hover ceiling verse gross weight

Height verse velocity diagram

Section 6- Weight and balance

This section will be covered in lesson 6

Section 7- System descriptions

Airframe

Rotor systems

Drive system

Engine

Flight controls

Removable flight controls

RPM governor

Control trim and friction

Engine controls

Clutch actuator

Fuel system

Electrical system

Lighting system

Instrument panel

Intercom system

Pitot-static system

Tachometers

Warning lights

Heating and ventilation

Seat, belts, and baggage

Landing gear

Rotor brake

Engine primer system

Section 8- Handling and maintenance

Required documents

Registration certificate

Pilot’s operating handbook (POH)

Airworthiness certificate

Airframe logbook – green

Engine logbook – red

Separate incase engine gets replaced. Log book goes with it

Inspections

Mechanic certification

Airframe and powerplant (A and P)

Inspection authorized (IA)

Required maintenance

Annual

100 Hour

Airworthiness directive (AD)

Check aircraft and engine seperately

Manufacture’s suggested maintenance

Service bulletins (SB)

Check factory & FAA website and check logbooks for compliance

Preventive maintenance by the pilot

Replace defective safety wire or cotter pins.

Replace bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.

Replace, clean, or gap spark plugs.

Replace engine air filter.

Clean or refinish exterior of the aircraft.

Replace the wear shoes on the landing gear.

Service or replace battery.

Change engine oil.

Inspect chip detectors and add oil to tail rotor gearbox.

Remove or replace any cowling or inspection panels.

Remove and replace gascolator bowl.

Logging preventive maintenance

Pilot must log the following in the appropriate logbook

Date work accomplished

Description of work

Total hours of aircraft

Pilot certificate number

Signature of pilot

Alterations to aircraft

Ground handling

Parking and tie down

Engine oil

Fuel

Battery service

Jump start engine

Tail rotor gearbox oil

Cleaning helicopter

Section 9- Supplements

R-22 police edition

R-22 mariner\mariner II (Float type)

Section 10- Safety tips

General- safety tips

Safety notices

Sn-1 Inadvertent actuation of mixture control in flight

Sn-9 Many accidents involve dynamic rollover

Sn-10 Fatal accidents caused by low RPM rotor stall

Sn-11 Low-G pushovers- extremely dangerous

Sn-13 Do not attach items to the skids

Sn-15 Fuel exhaustion can be fatal

Sn-16 Power lines are deadly

Sn-17 Never exit helicopter with engine running

Sn-18 Loss of visibility can be fatal

Sn-19 Flying low over water is very hazardous

Sn-20 Beware of demonstration or initial training flights

Sn-22 Always reduce rate-of-descent before reducing airspeed

Sn-23 Walking into tail rotor can be fatal

Sn-24 Low RPM rotor stall can be fatal

Sn-25 Carburetor ice

Sn-26 Night flight plus bad weather can be deadly

Sn-27 Surprise throttle chops can be deadly

Sn-28 Listen for impending bearing failure

Sn-29 Airplane pilots high risk when flying helicopters

Sn-30 Loose objects can be fatal

Sn-31 Governor can mask carb ice

Sn-32 High winds or turbulence

Sn-33 Vee-belts turning rotor during engine start-up

Sn-34 Photo flights- very high risk

Sn-35 Flying near broadcast towers

Sn-36 Overspeeds during liftoff

Sn-37 Exceeding approved limitations can be fatal

Sn-38 Practice autorotations cause many training accidents

Sn-39 Unusual vibration can indicate a main rotor blade crack

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 6

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to weight and balance terminology and density altitude calculations.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Robinson R-22 Pilot Operating Handbook- sections 1 and 6 and the Rotorcraft Flying Handbook- chapter 7. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Weight and Balance Terminology

(POH, Sec 1, Pg 1-7)

Reference datum

Station

Arm

Moment

Center of gravity (CG)

CG arm

CG limits

Usable fuel

Unusable fuel

Standard empty weight

Basic empty weight

Payload

Useful load

Gross weight

2. Section 6 of the POH- Weight and Balance

Helicopter weighing procedure

Helicopter weight and balance record

Found in helicopter

Lateral CG position

Loading instructions

Equipment list

3. Weight and Balance Determinations

Computation method

W&B forms

Graph method

Section 6, Page 6-7

POH Covers Longitudinal CG only

Table method

Use tables containing weights and their moments at specific stations

4. Weight and Balance Management

Weight adjustment

Move to put CG in limits.

Seat limits: 240 lbs (includes baggage under seat)

Baggage limits: 50 lbs

Story: People killed because baggage compartment stuffed w/ books during crash

Center of gravity adjustment

CG farther aft with one occupant

Fuel burn-off

CG moves forward

100LL – 6 lb/gal

oil – 7.5 lb/gal

Jet A – 6.84 lb/gal

Effect of out-of balance loading

Far aft CG

Won’t be able fly forward or have limited forward A/S

Far forward CG

Limits or eliminates ability to flare.

Far lateral CG

Limits or eliminates ability to control direction.

5. Helicopter Performance

Effect of density altitude

High DA = Less performance

More power to hover & fly

Less power available

Less air for blades to bite into

Lower Vne

Pressure altitude

Altitude compensated for non-standard pressure

Higher PA = Higher DA

Density altitude

Pressure Altitude compensated for non-standard temperature

Air density

Less density = Higher DA

Temperature

Higher Temp = Higher DA

Moisture

Increase DA.

Computing density altitude

Via equation

Students should already know this

Via chart

Sec 5, Pg 5-3

E6B

Effect on hovering, takeoff, and rate of climb

Higher DA reduces performance

Effect of high gross weight at high density altitude

On power available

None

On hovering flight

High GW = Lower Ceiling

On takeoff and rate of climb

High GW = More power for TO & lower ROC

Effect of wind

1) POH on wind

End of Section 2

2) Strong wind

Less power to hover – Aircraft in ETL

3) Gusty wind

Harder to maintain position

Performance increase followed by performance decrease when gust stops

4) Wind direction

Winds from left or behind can cause LTE.

Hover & land into wind if possible.

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 7

STAGE CHECK 1- GROUND

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

This lesson will be a review of material presented in lessons 1-6, in preparation for the stage check 1 ground written test.

LESSON CONTENT

Review as necessary

COMPLETION STANDARDS

Stage one ( The first six lessons) will be complete when the student has passed the stage check 1- ground written test, with a minimum score of 90 percent.

LESSON 8

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will obtain a basic understanding of weather elements and their importance to the pilot.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen private pilot manual- chapter 6. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. The Earth’s Atmosphere

Composition

78% Nitrogen

21% Oxygen

1% other gases (argon, CO²)

0-4% water vapor by volume

Vertical structure

Thicker at the sides due to solar heating.

Troposphere

To 36,000 feet on average

Tropopause

Boundary not a layer B acts as lid to confine water vapor to troposphere

Stratosphere

To 160,000 feet on average

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

International standard atmosphere (ISA) 0 feet MSL

Inches of mercury and degrees Celsius

29.92" Hg

15° C

Millibars and degrees Fahrenheit

1013.2 Mb

59° F

Pounds per square inch

14.7 psi

Humidity

0% humidity

Water vapor is less dense than air.

Each 10% humidity adds 100' to DA

2. Temperature

Temperature Variation

Diurnal

Day vs. night temperature. Coldest before dawn.

Seasonal

Due to earth’s rotation around the Sun.

Latitude

Due to distance from equator which affects the angle the Sun hits the Earth’s surface.

Colder @ most southern & northern latitudes because of deflection.

Topography

Water vs. Land

Altitude

biggest variation

Temperature Inversion

Temp increases with altitude

Very stable air & very little wind

Low visibility & low ceilings

Temperature lapse rate

Lapse rate:

Decrease in temperature as altitude increases.

Compared to standard lapse rate

Large decrease = unstable air

Small decrease or increase = stable air.

Standard temp lapse rate: -1.98° C or -3.5° F / 1000'

Isotherm

Line of equal temperature on a weather chart.

3. Atmospheric pressure and altimetry

Sea level pressure

Altimeter settings are based on the pressure at sea level regardless of airport elevation

Good for up to 100 nm from airport.

Altimeter must be calibrated every 24 calendar months.

Station pressure

Pressure at altitude adjusted for elevation

Used to determine sea level pressure at that location if it was at sea level.

Measured in “Hg, Mb, psi using aneroid barometer.

Pressure variations

Altitude

Lower pressure @ higher altitudes

-1” Hg/1000’

True altitude

Actual altitude above MSL

Indicated altitude

Altitude read off the altimeter

Calibrated altitude

Indicated altitude corrected for instrument error

Pressure altitude

Altitude corrected for non-standard pressure – PA

Density altitude

Pressure Altitude corrected for non-standard temperature – DA

Pressure systems

High pressure flows into low pressure

Low

Cyclonic, counter-clockwise rotation, air travels inward & upward at the surface.

Trough

Elongated area of low pressure.

“_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _“

High

Anti-cyclonic, clockwise rotation, air travels downward & outward at the surface.

Ridge

Elongated area of high pressure.

“VVVVVVVVV”

Col

A neutral area between 2 highs or 2 lows or the intersection of a trough and a ridge

Isobar

Line of equal pressure on a weather chart

4. Winds

Basic theory of circulation

All weather exists to equalize the atmosphere.

Weather is the direct result of the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface and involves a heat exchange.

Wind direction will change when crossing a front.

Pressure gradient force

The air will flow from high to low pressure

The closer the isobars, the stronger the wind.

Coriolis force

Shifts wind in the northern hemisphere to the right

Caused by rotation of the Earth

Causes it to move in a circle

Faster wind will be more affected by CF

Doesn’t affect wind speed.

Friction effect

Wind against the Earth’s surface to 2000' AGL

Decreases effects of CF and wind velocity

Goes to higher elevations during summer

Lower elevations during winter

This is what allows wind to go from high to low

Instead of in circles due to Coriolis Force.

Local wind systems

Measurement

http://wahiduddin.net/calc/calc_da_em.htm for DA

http://www.yesinc.com/education/moist‑convert.html for RH

Relative humidity

Amount (measured in %) of water vapor present compared to how much the air can hold (milk & marbles demo)

Dewpoint

The temperature to which air must be cooled to reach 100% saturation.

When reached

water vapor visible

Fog

Clouds

Low visibility

Haze

Dew

Dewpoint above freezing

Frost

Dewpoint below freezing B bad for aircraft

Condensation and sublimation products

Cloud composition

Water Droplets, Ice crystals

Condensation nuclei

Dust

Smoke

Salt (from sea spray)

Etc that water vapor can attach itself to

Status = layer

Cumulus = billowy

Clouds

Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual Page 6-21

Low clouds

0 to 6500'

Stratus

Nimbostratus

Stratocumulus

Fog – named by how formed

Ground

Any fog < 20' deep

Radiation

Low flat areas on calm clear humid nights from surface cooling

Valley

Forms in a valley

Advection

Warm-moist air moves over cool surface

Up to 15 kts wind = better fog

Upslope

Moist stable air moved up hill.

Up to 15kts wind = better fog

Steam

Cold dry air moves over warmer water

Low level turbulence and icing hazard

Precipitation

Rain or drizzle falls through cool air

very dense, stays until rain stops

Middle clouds

6500-20,000 feet

Altostratus

Altocumulus

High clouds

20,000+ feet

Mostly ice crystals

Cirrus

Wispy

Cirrostratus

Milky sky

Cirrocumulus

Small patches

Clouds with extensive vertical development

All altitudes up to 60,000 feet

Cumulus

Towering cumulus

Cumulonimbus

Cumulonimbus Mamma

Embedded

Hidden by other clouds

Cloud base equation

Temp (F) – Dewpoint (F) X 1000

4.4

Temp (C) – Dewpoint (C) X 1000

2.444444

Precipitation

Physical states

Drizzle & Rain: D < 0.02" dia, R >0.02" dia.

Precip induced fog

When cooler air near surface

Very dense

Stays until rain stops

Ice Pellets

Rain falls thru inversion, freeze rain above.

Hail

Water drops freeze and get recirculated until too large.

Freezing Rain

Rain falling from warm front through cold front.

Snow

Ice crystals

Virga

Doesn’t hit ground, not precipitation

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 9

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will complete the introduction to the basic weather elements.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private pilot manual- chapter 6. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Air Masses

Definition

A large body of air with uniform properties such as temperature & moisture

Gets its characteristics from its source region.

Whether an air mass is high or low pressure is relative to the pressure surrounding the air mass.

Source regions

Continental (c) - dry or Maritime (m) - moist

Tropical (T) - warm/hot or Polar (P) - cool/cold

Classifications and characteristics

Maritime Polar - mP = cool & moist

Maritime Tropical - mT = hot & moist

Continental Tropical - cT = hot & dry

Continental Polar - cP = cool & dry

Air mass modification

Will gradually adopt the characteristics of the region it travels over

2. Fronts

Definition

The boundary between two air masses

Wind direction will shift when crossing a front

To right in northern hemisphere

To left in southern hemisphere

Types (Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual pg 6-32)

Cold

Warm

Stationary

Occluded

Cold front occlusion

Warm front occlusion

3. Turbulence

Definition

A sudden change in air direction and/or velocity

Convective currents

Thermals: From solar heating of the ground

Updrafts caused by warm air rising

Obstructions to wind flow

Mechanical turbulence

From wind affected by the objects on the ground.

Felt up to 2000' AGL

Mountain wave turbulence

Stable air going over a mountain @ 40 kts or greater.

May extend 100 miles or more down wind.

Standing lenticular clouds

Winds of 50 kts or more

Lots of turbulence

Cross mountain @ 45° angle for safer flying

Wind shear

Definition

Sudden drastic change in wind velocity and/or direction (horizontal or vertical)

Can happen anywhere

Frontal Zones, Low-Level Temp Inversion

Microburst

Strongest form of wind shear.

Last as long as 15 min.

Strongest @ 1 min from start, 1 nm wide & 1000' tall.

Produce headvind of 45 kts & up to 100kts

Rates of descent over 6500 fpm.

Common during dissipating stage of T-storm.

Clear air turbulence (CAT)

Not associated with convective activity

Normally above 15,000',

Associated with Jet-Streams

Wake turbulence

Definition

Rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called wingtip vortices that come from the creation of lift

Bigger aircraft create bigger wingtip vortices

Large heavy aircraft

Low speeds

High AoA

Clean configuration

Flaps retracted

Jet engine blast

Hurricane force winds 200’ or more

Behind jets @ takeoff power

Do go behind jets even when they are idling

Categories of turbulence (FAR-AIM 7-1-23)

Light

Moderate

Severe

Extreme

What to do in Turbulence

Slow down

Relax grip on cyclic

Allow it to move around

Prevents over-controlling

4. Structural icing

Types

Rime

-15° C to -20° C

Mushroom shaped, opaque & milky from air trapped in ice

Freezes instantly when contacting aircraft.

Clear

0° to -10° C

Freezes slowly over a surface

Causing less air to be trapped

Looks like a sheet of ice.

Caused by large super cooled water droplets.

Encountered in

Cumulus clouds

Freezing rain beneath a warm front,

Warm air inversion.

Worst type of ice

Mixed

-10° C to -15° C

Causes

Needs visible moisture

Surface must be below freezing

Effects

increased weight

Greatly decreased lift

Unbalanced rotors

Intensity (FAR-AIM 7-1-22)

Trace

Light

Moderate

Severe

Preventive measures

Stay/leave areas of icing.

Pitot/rotor heat, de-ice boots

5. Thunderstorms

Conditions for development

Unstable lapse rate

High moisture content

Lifting action

Lifecycle

Cumulus stage (Beginning)

Grow as high as 20,000' & 3-5 sm wide in less than 15 min

Mostly updrafts

Mature stage (Middle)

Precipitation starts, “anvil” at the end of mature stage

Up & down drafts

Dissipating stage (Last)

Mostly down drafts

Micro-burst alert

Types

Airmass

Short-lived (20 min to 1.5 hrs)

Relatively mild but still dangerous

Falling precipitation reverses updrafts into downdrafts

Causes dissipation

Steady State

Last several hours or more

Usually associated with frontal activity

Rain falls outside of updrafts

Squall Line

A narrow band of (usually steady state) thunderstorms

Produce the severest weather.

Often (but not always) Found 50 - 300 sm in front of a fast moving cold front.

Hazards

Turbulence

Icing

Hail

Lightening

Reduced visibility

Tornados

Heavy rain

Wind shear

Avoidance procedures

Stay atleast 20 nm away

Because they throw hail a long ways

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 10

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will learn how aviation weather is collected, and distributed.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private Pilot Handbook- chapters 6 and 7 and Aviation Weather Services- sections 1,2,3, and 4. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Methods of Collecting Weather Data

Weather observers for ground weather depiction

Guy walks outside and looks around

Radiosondes

Attached to weather balloons for upper air data

Radar for identifying precipitation

From the surface

In the air

Satellite

Satellite for cloud depiction

Weather radar,

Photography

Surface observations

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)

Started in1979

Updated every minute

AWOS-A – reports altimeter setting

AWOS-1 – AWOS-A + wind, temp, dewpoint, & DA

AWOS-2 – AWOS-1 + visibility

AWOS-3 – AWOS-2 + cloud/ceiling

Broadcast over VHF, Navaids, and often via telephone

See A/FD

1-877-ANY-AWOS

Toll Call

Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS)

Started in 1991

Currently primary system in U.S.

Updated every minute

Provides same info as AWOS-3 and

Variable cloud height

Variable visibility

Rapid pressure changes

Precipitation

Type

If able, designated “AO2”

If not, designated “AO1”

Intensity

Accumulation

Beginning and Ending times

Wind shifts and peak winds

Broadcast over VHF, Navaids, and often via telephone

See A/FD

Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

Updated on receipt of official weather (usually hourly)

Or after significant change

Mention monitor screen @ SSH front desk

Each update has a letter identifying in

Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, etc.

Different names during x-mas season

Definitions

Zulu Time

Times usually given in UTC “Universal Time Coordinated”

Service

If a Person collects weather data

System

If a computer collects weather data

2. Printed Weather Reports

Aviation routine weather report (METAR)

(Jeppesen PPM pg 7-10)

Updated hourly 50 min after the hour

Or after significant weather change (SPECI)

Contains

Type of report – METAR or SPECI

Station ID

KIWA

Day of month & time in Zulu

122150Z

Modifier

AUTO

Tells if report automated

COR

Corrected report

No modifier means data taken manually

Wind

08020G38KT

Wind is in 5-digit group or 6 if speed over 99 kts

Wind is from direction of true heading

Gust is highest reported gust

Visibility – in SM. RVR is in feet

½ SM R36L/2400FT

Runway visual range (RVR)

Runway 36L 2400’

“V” means variable RVR Weather & obstructions to visibility

+TSRA

Qualifier & Descriptor

+TS

Heavy thunderstorm

Weather Phenomena

RA

Rain

Sky conditions

SCT008 OVC012CB

CB = Cumulonimbus clouds

Temp & dewpoint

20/18

Altimeter setting

A2995

Remarks

RMK TSB24RAB24 SLP134

T-storm began 24 min after hour

Rain began 24 min after hour

Sea Level Pressure 1013.4 mB

$ -- Needs maintenance

Radar weather reports (SD) (Jep PPM pg 7-16)

Both from the surface, in the air, and satellite

SD: Radar weather reports

Issued every hour 35 min after the hour.

Pilot reports (PIREPS)

Upper air (UA)

Urgent upper air (UUA)

Required

OV – Over

TM – Time

FL – Flight level

TP – aircraft type

Optional

SK – sky cover

WX – visibility & weather

TA – temp in °C

WV – wind direction & velocity

TB – turbulence

IC – icing

RM -- remarks

3. Printed Weather Forecasts

Terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF)

(Jep PPM pg 7-18)

Good for 5 sm around an airport

Valid for 24 hrs.

Issued 4x/day (0Z, 6Z, 12Z, 18Z)

Reads like METAR

1^st Day of month & time in Zulu is when issued

2^nd Day of month & Zulu time range is when it’s valid

Aviation area forecast (FA) (Jep PPM pg 7-20)

Covers large area over several states. (9 regions)

One for Hawaii & Alaska each

Another sometimes issued for Gulf of Mexico

We are in SLC

Issued 3x/day

Valid for 18 hours

Contains

Heading Section

Precautionary Statements

Synopsis

VFR Clouds & Weather

Forecast for next 12 hrs

Outlook for 6 hrs after that

Winds and temperature aloft forecast (FD)

(Jep PPM pg 7-23)

Every 3000' from 3000' to 39,000'

Issued 2x/day

Doesn’t include winds within 1500' of station

Doesn’t include temps @ 3000'

Or within 2500' of station

For winds from 100 to 199 kts

50 added to wind direction

100 subtracted from wind velocity

4. Severe Weather Reports and Forecasts

Hurricane advisory (WH) (Jep PPM pg 7-24)

When atleast 300 nm offshore but threatens coastline

Convective outlook (AC) (Jep PPM pg 7-25)

Covers Two 24 hr periods (Day1 & Day 2)

Predicts T-storm criteria

Surface winds 50+ kts

3/4"+ hail

Tornados

Issued 5x/day

Severe weather watch bulletin (WW)

(Jep PPM pg 7-25)

Defines areas of severe t-storm, tornados

Unscheduled reports - sent as needed

Airmen’s meteorological information (AIRMET), (WA)

(Jep PPM pg 7-25)

Weather of interest to all aircraft

But important to light aricraft

Issued every 6 hrs

Sierra

IFR conditions affecting 50% or more of an area

Mountain obscurations

Tango

Moderate, severe turbulence

Surface winds 30-50 kts

Low Level Wind Shear

Zulu

Freezing levels

Icing conditions

Significant meteorological information (SIGMET)

(WS)

(Jep PPM pg 7-26)

Issued as needed valid for 4 hrs (6 hrs for hurricanes)

Significant to all aircraft

Severe Icing

Severe/extreme turbulence

CAT

Dust and sand storm lowering visibility to under 3 miles

Volcanic ash

Convective SIGMET, (WST) (Jep PPM pg 7-27)

Issued hourly 55 min past the hour

Includes observation & forecast or forecast only

Valid for 2 hrs

Tornados

Severe icing

Lines of t-storm

T-storm over a large area

Embedded t-storms

Hail 3/4" or larger

Wind gusts 50 kts or more

5. Graphic Reports

Surface analysis chart (Jep PPM pg 7-31)

Show weather as of time on chart

Weather depiction chart (Jep PPM pg 7-32)

Derived from METARs

Weather as of time on chart

Radar summary chart (Jep PPM pg 7-33)

Graphic presentation of SDs

Satellite Weather Pictures (Jep PPM pg 7-36)

Every 30 min except @ night

6. Graphic Forecasts

US low-level significant weather prognostic chart

(Jep PPM pg 7-37)

Valid from surface to 400 Mb level (24K=)

12 & 24 hr forecast

Issued 4x/day (0Z, 6Z, 12Z, 18Z)

Convective outlook chart (Jep PPM pg 7-40)

48 hr forecast

Day 1 panel 12Z to 12Z

Day 2 panel 12Z to 12Z

Issued 5x/day

Forecast winds and temperature aloft chart (FD)

(Jep PPM pg 7-40)

12 Hr forecast

Issued 2x/day (0Z, 12Z)

8 panels for 6K=, 9K=, 12K=, 18K=, 24K=, 30K=, 34K=, 39K=

Panels below 18K’ are true altitude

All others pressure altitude

Volcanic ash forecast and dispersion chart (VAFTAD)

(Jep PPM pg 7-41)

Only when eruptions reported

Forecast over 6 & 12 hr intervals

1^st is 6 hrs after eruptions

Not intended to replace SIGMETs

7. Sources of Weather Information

Flight service station (FSS)

FSS’s depiction of given weather conditions

Ceiling

Lowest level of clouds depicted as

Broken

Overcast

Vertical Visibility (VV) into obscuration

Clouds

Few: 1/8 to 2/8 coverage

Scattered: 3/8 to 4/8 coverage

Broken: 5/8 to 7/8 coverage

Overcast: 8/8 coverage

VFR (Visual Flight Rules)

Visibility greater than 5 sm & ceiling greater than 3000' AGL

VMC – Visual Meteorological Conditions

MVFR: Marginal VFR

Visibility 3-5 sm and/or ceilings 1000'-3000' AGL

IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)

Visibility less than 3 sm and/or ceiling less than 1000' AGL

IMC – Instrument Meteorological Conditions

Special VFR Helicopter Minimums:

Clear of Clouds & Safe A/S to see and avoid obstacles and other aircraft. Helicopters can request SVFR anywhere.

“No SVFR” notes are for fixed wing only

Weather briefings

Standard

All the weather & NOTAMS available for your flight

Abbreviated

Used after getting Standard Briefing to double check weather before taking off

Outlook

For flights 6 or more hours in future

Not for flight planning - just basic info

How to contact Flight service station (FSS)

Phone- 1(800) WX-BRIEF

Internet- Direct user access terminal system (DUATS)

Web-based

www.duat.com

www.duats.com (Cirrus software available)

PC software based

http://www.duats.com/cirrus.shtml

https://www.duat.com/files.phtm

In-flight- Enroute Flight Advisory Service (Flight watch)

(EFAS)- 122.0 MHZ

5000 feet AGL to 17,500 feet MSL

Transcribed weather broadcast (TWEB)

Contact info is in A/FD, Sectionals, IFR charts

Weather 25 miles of each side of particular routes

Often gives weather locations by referring to VORs

“T” in upper right corner of navaid box

Includes

Route forecasts

In-flight advisories

Winds aloft

NOTAMs

Hazardous in-flight weather advisory service (HIWAS)

Broadcasted over certain VORs

Contains

AIRMETs

SIGMETs

Convective SIGMETs

UUAs

Solid square or “H” in lower right corner of navaid box

Central weather advisory (CWA)

Unscheduled weather advisory by a Center

Only if weather within 150 miles of jurisdiction

Alert pilots of existing or expected adverse weather in next 2 hours

Broadcast on all frequencies except emergency

8. Reading Coded Reports and Forecasts

Decoding Aviation Routine Weather Reports

(METAR)

Jep PPM page 7-10 to 7-16

Decoding Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)

Jep PPM page 7-18 to 7-20

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 11

6.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will learn about the types of visual flight rules (VFR) charts available, while using them in conjunction with the E6B flight computer and a navigation log.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private Pilot Handbook- chapter 8 section C and chapter 9 section A, the E6B flight computer, sectional chart, airport facility directory (AFD) and the navigational plotter. Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Charts

Types of visual flight rules (VFR) charts.

Terminal area chart (TAC) 1:250,000 scale

Map of Class B airspace

Sectional chart (Sectionals) 1:500,000 scale

Revised every six months

World aeronautical chart (WAC) 1:1,000,000 scale

Revised annually

Helicopter route chart

Routes designed for helicopters

Usually created only for high helicopter traffic airspace

Scale usually 1:125,000

Chart selection

What kind of flying are you going to do?

How far will you go?

How high up?

Symbols and markings

Legend and other markings

Airports, heliports, and flight service station (FSS)

Visual flight rules (VFR) checkpoints

Topography

Contour lines

Magnetic variation

Isogonic lines

Latitude and longitude

Airspace depiction

Class B, C, D, E, G airspace

MOAs, Restricted, Prohibited Airspace

Navigational aid depiction

VOR, NDBs, VORTAC

Prohibited areas

No aircraft allowed

White House

TFRs

Get permission from controlling agency to enter

Shown as “P-###”

Restricted areas

Contain hazards to aircraft

Artillery,

Guided missles

Get permission from controlling agency to enter

When active

Check hours of operation on chart

Shown as “R-####”

Alert areas

Areas of unusual aerial activities

Student pilots

Parachuting,

Glider towing

No permission required to enter

Be especially alert for traffic

Military operation area (MOA)

Areas of military training

No permission required to enter

Best to avoid when possible

Check hours of operation on chart

Warning Area

From 3 NM outward from US coast

Possible activity hazardous to non-participating aircraft

ADIZ – Air Defense Identification Zones

Must have:

Flight plan

2-way radio

Mode C

Report penetration

15 min prior +/- 5 min

Within 10 nm (land)

Of estimated ground track

Within 20 nm (sea)

Of estimated ground track

Effective coverage area

Check map on title page for coverage area

Expiration

Most charts expire

Grand Canyon chart has no expiration date

2. The Navigational Plotter

Mileage scales

Statue miles (SM)- 5280 feet

Nautical miles (NM)- 6076 feet

NM x 1.15 = SM

Azimuth scales

Degrees

Plotting and measuring

Course selection

Selecting visible check points

Should be large enough to see from the air

Good check points

Tops of hills/mountains

Road/RR intersections

Airports

Landmarks

Dams

Lakes

If not very large

Lake Michigan – bad

Small perennial lake – good

Etc

Bad check points

Roads

How do you tell if you crossed it at the correct point?

Antennas

Difficult to see from the air unless very tall

Often many others in area not shown on map

3. The E6B Flight Computer

The slide rule side (Calculator side)

Explanation of markings

True airspeed (TAS) and density altitude (DA)

Speed, time, and distance

Fuel consumption

Mileage and speed conversions

The wind side of the slide (Wind face side)

Explanation of markings

Ground speed (GS)

Wind correction angle

True heading

4. Navigation Log (Flight Planner)

Definitions

True course (TC)

Magnetic course (MC)

Magnetic heading (MH)

Compass heading (CH)

Flight service station (FSS)

weather briefing for weather information required

Predicted wind direction and velocity

Atmospheric pressure (Altimeter setting)

Temperature

Planned Information

Proposed true course

Initial cruising altitude

True airspeed (TAS)

Wind correction angle (WCA)

Magnetic variation (Isogonic lines)

Magnetic deviation (Component interference)

Distance legs and total

Groundspeed (GS)

Estimated time of arrival (ETA)

Estimated time enroute (ETE)

Fuel used and remaining

Airport information for checkpoints and destinations

Elevation

Runways direction and distance

Radio frequencies

Airport facility directory (AFD)

Content

Directory legend

Special notices

Airport diagrams

Effective coverage area

See map on front & back

Expiration

Every 56 days

5. Application of Navigation Methods

Pilotage

Flying from landmark to landmark. Navigation by visual landmarks

Ded reckoning

Deduced reckoning

Flying by calculating

Time

Fuel burn

Speed

Distance

Direction in order to navigate

6. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Plan

Filling out flight plan log

Filing

Opening

Usually done from air

Take into account time you took off

Extending

Do this if you are going to be late

Use your flight plan to figure that out

Closing/ canceling

Don’t forget to close it after you land

Very important in non-towered airports

Could be liable for costs of rescue if false alarm

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 12

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will learn how to decipher and understand requirements to enter all airspaces under visual flight rules (VFR) conditions.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual- chapter 4 section D and The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)/ Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)- chapter 3 of the (AIM). Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Deciphering Airspace from a Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Chart

Class G airspace

“G” for “Good Times”

All airspace not otherwise depicted

under 14,500 feet MSL

Class E airspace

If depicted dashed magenta- begins at the surface

If depicted fuzzy magenta- begins at 700 feet AGL

If depicted fuzzy blue- begins at 1200 feet AGL

If depicted as a victor airway- begins at 1200 feet AGL

If depicted as linked blue- begins at stated MSL altitude

All airspace above 14,500 feet MSL

not otherwise depicted

When class E begins it extends up to but not including

18,000 feet MSL

Unless otherwise depicted

Restarts at 60,000 feet MSL

Class D airspace

Depicted as dashed blue line

Normally extends up to 2,500 feet AGL from the surface

Normally 10 nm diameter

Established 2-way comms

Class C airspace

Depicted as solid magenta line

Normally extends up to 4,000 feet AGL from the surface

Two layer up-side down wedding cake

4000' AGL

10 nm diameter

SFC to 4000’ AGL

Then 20 nm diameter

1200’ AGL to 4000’ AGL

Established 2-way comms

Must respond to you

Mode C transponder

Not required when flying underneath outer ring

Class B airspace

Depicted as solid blue line

Normally extends up to 10,000 feet MSL from the surface

Up-side down wedding cake

30 nm mode C veil

2-way comms

Clearance to Enter – must say cleared to enter

Class A airspace

All airspace between

18,000 feet MSL and 60,000 feet MSL

Designated instrument flight rules (IFR) only

Altimeter 29.92

2. Requirements to Enter Airspaces under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Conditions

Class G airspace

Below 1200 feet AGL

Safe A/S & Clear of Clouds

Between 1200 feet AGL and 10,000 feet MSL

Day

1 sm vis

1000 above, 500 below, 2000 horz

Night

3 sm vis

1000 abv, 500 bel, 2000 horz

Above 10,000 feet MSL

5 sm & 1000 abv, 1000 bel, 1 sm horz

Mode C transponder required

Except below 2500’ AGL

Class E airspace

Below 10,000 feet MSL

3 sm & 1000 abv, 500 bel, 2000 horz

Above 10,000 feet MSL

5 sm & 1000 abv, 1000 bel, 1 sm horz

Mode C transponder required

Except below 2500’ AGL

Class D airspace

3 sm & 1000 abv, 500 bel, 2000 horz

Class C airspace

3 sm & 1000 abv, 500 bel, 2000 horz

Class B airspace

3 sm & clear of clouds

Class A airspace

IFR only

3. Requirements to Enter Airspaces under Special Visual Flight Rules(SVFR) Conditions

Helicopters only

Safe Airspeed

Clear of clouds

“NO SVFR” notice on charts

Refers to fixed-wing aircraft

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 13

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to the usage of Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) as well as general airport and heliport operations.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual and The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)/Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)- chapter 2 of the (AIM). Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Information Available in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Chapter 1

Navigation aids

Chapter 2

Aeronautical lighting and other airport visual aids

Chapter 3

Airspace

Chapter 4

Air traffic control

Chapter 5

Air traffic procedures

Chapter 6

Emergency procedures

Chapter 7

Safety of flight

Chapter 8

Medical facts for pilots

Chapter 9

Aeronautical charts and related publications

Chapter 10

Helicopter operations

Appendix 1

Bird/other wildlife strike reports

Appendix 2

Volcanic activity reporting from (VAR)

Pilot/controller glossary

2. Airports and Heliports

Runway numbering

Correspond to magnetic heading on final appoach

Wind direction indicators(Jeppesen PPM, 4-20

Wind sock

Small end of sock points downwind

Wind Tee

Aligns like weather vane to point into wind

Tetrahedron

Points into wind

Moved by wind or manually

Segmented Circle

Jep PPM 4-21

Shows traffic Pattern

Usually contains something to indicate wind direction

Runways all have left-hand traffic patterns

Unless stated otherwise

Runway and heliport markings

AIM, Chap 2, Sec 3

Taxiways

AIM, Chap 2, Sec 3

Parking area (Ramp)

Contact tower or FBO to locate

Field elevation

Found in AFD

Charts

Painted on the ground on the airport

Airport and heliport lighting

Beacons

a. Airport: green - white

b. Military Airport: green - white - white

c. Heliport: green - yellow- white

d. Seaport: yellow - white

Visual glide slope indicators

Approximately 3º glide slope

Assumes airplane will be using it

Visual approach slope indicator (VASI)

White over white – fly all night

Red over white – all right

Red over red – you’re dead

Pulsating visual approach slope indicator (PVASI)

Pulsating red – below glide path

Steady white – on glide path

Pulsating white – above glide path

Precision approach path indicator (PAPI)

4 lights side-by-side

2 red & 2 white – on glide path

Tri-color VASI

Amber – too high

Green – on glide path

Red/dark amber – below glide path

Approach lighting system (ALS)

White lights

Follow extended centerline of runway

As long as 3000’

Include steady & flashing lights

Synchronized lights

“Rabbit”

Runway edge lights

White on edge of runway

Some will appear yellow

On last half or last 2000’ of runway

Whichever is less

Appear white when approach from other side

Row of green lights on approach end to show beginning

Appear red when approaching form other end

To show end

HIRL

High Intensity Runway Lighting

MIRL

Medium

LIRL

Low

REIL

Runway edge identifier lights

Very bright strobe lights

In- runway lighting

Down centerline

All white until last 3000’

Alternating red & white 3000’ – 1000’

All red last 1000’

Taxiway lighting

Blue lights

Pilot controlled lighting

See A/FD

Key mike to turn on (# of times in 5 seconds)

7 times – max

5 times – medium

3 times – low

Usually stays on for 15 minutes

If already on, key again to reset timer

Obstruction lighting

Bright red & high intensity white strobes

Beware of guy-wires

Fly directly over

Airport traffic patterns

Function

Orderly flow of traffic

Airplanes

Departure Leg (upwind leg)

Crosswind Leg

Downwind Leg

Base Leg

Final Approach

Helicopters

Same pattern concept except . . .

Avoid the flow of fixed wing traffic

3. Radio Communications

Contact procedure

Who you’re calling

Your aircraft ID (include ATIS info here)

Location

What you want

Microphone technique

Listen before transmitting

Think about what you want to say

Speak in a normal tone

Aircraft call signs

Always use your full call sign unless ATC abbreviates it

Radio phraseology

Phonetic alphabet

Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, etc

Flight levels

21,000’ is “Flight Level Two One Zero”

General terminology

Traffic pattern positions

Abeam

At the 45

Hold short

Repeat this back

On the go

Cleared for takeoff

Cleared to land

Fly Runway Heading

LAHSO – Land and Hold Short

Land and hold short of intersecting runway.

PIC can refuse to do that

Stay on runway heading after takeoff until told otherwise

(Pick direction)-bound departure approved

Follow normal traffic pattern

Depart at appropriate location

Letter of Agreement with IWA

Sharps – Delta transition with PHX

Radio failure

Light gun signals

AIM, Chapter 4, Sec 3, Part 13 (4-3-13)

Squawk 7600

Try cell phone?

Circle in some prominent place above TPA

Wait to be noticed by tower

If not noticed

Observe flow of traffic and follow in for landing

Tower will likely see you at this time

Expect a light gun signal & a conversation

Dealing with busy airspace

Call with just your tail number and wait for response

When tower responds

Everyone else stops talking so you can respond

Do not enter airspace until cleared

2-way comms

Class C & D

“Cleared to Enter”

Class A & B

4. Airport and Heliport Communications

Controlled airports and heliports

Automated terminal information service (ATIS)

Repeating message

Changed hourly or after significant weather change

Clearance delivery

To get IFR clearance

Ground control

Helicopters generally don’t contact ground control

Tower

Who we most often talk to

Approach

Sometimes talk to when approaching busy airports

Departure

Sometime talk to when departing busy airports

Air route traffic control center (ARTCC)

AIM 4-1-1

Provides ATC service

To aircraft operating in IFR flight plans

Controls airspace between airports

Uncontrolled airport and heliports (AIM 4-1-9)

Flight service station (FSS)

located on field (Airport Advisory Area)

AIM 4-1-3

Pilot briefings

Flight watch

EFAS - En Route Flight Advisory Service

122.0 Mhz.

Form 5000' AGL to 17,500' MSL

Transcribed weather broadcasts (TWEB)

AIM 7-1-9

Schedules weather broadcasts

In-flight services

Weather updates (Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories)

File/Amend/open/close flight plans

PIREPs

VFR search & rescue

& more

Automated weather observing system (AWOS)

AIM 7-1-12

Automated weather observation system (ASOS)

AIM 7-1-12

Common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF)

Used @ uncontrolled airports for pilots to communicate

Unicom

General purpose frequency

Multicom

General purpose frequency

5. Emergency Procedures

Definitions

Distress- PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN, PAN-PAN

Urgency- MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY

Emergency locator transmitter (ELT)

AIM 6-2-5

FAR 91.207

Replace battery when . . .

Cumulative use more than 1 hr

50% of useful life expired

Inspect every 12 calendar months

Sends out a signal

So rescuers can find you after a crash

Activated by crash-generated forces or manually

Newer models transmits aircraft data and position

Emergency (VHF) frequency- 121.5

Transponder codes

1200- Visual flight rules (VFR)

7500- Hi-jacked

7600- Radio failure

7700- General emergency

Remember:

12 – I see you

77 – Going to Heaven

76 – Radios nixed

75 – Osama inside

6. The Advisory Circular System (AC)

Function

Pamphlets put out (usually by FAA) as advice and information to assist pilots in the safe conduct of flight and aircraft movement

Obtaining

www.faa.gov

7. The Notice to Airmen (Notam) System

If permanent, it will appear on weather briefings until next edition of AFD

Notam L

Local

Taxiway closure

Crane operations

Affects local operations

Notam D

Distant

VOR is out

Runway closures

Affects ability to get there

Notam FDC

Flight Data Center

Instrument Approach Procedure changes

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)

Changes to national airspace.

Obtaining

Flight briefing

ATIS

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 14

STAGE CHECK 2- GROUND

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

This lesson will be a review of material presented in lessons 1-13, in preparation for the stage check 2 ground written test.

LESSON CONTENT

Review as necessary

COMPLETION STANDARDS

Stage two ( The first thirteen lessons) will be complete when the student has passed the stage check 2- ground written test, with a minimum score of 90 percent.

LESSON 15

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to radio navigation and it’s application to cross country flight

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Jeppesen Private Pilot Manual- chapter 9 sections B,C, and D and The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)/Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)- chapters 4 and 5 of the (AIM) . Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Frequency Ranges & Types

Low – Med (30 -300 & 300 – 3000 KHz)

NDB

High (3 – 30 MHz)

VHF (30 – 300 MHz)

VOR, Comms, Localizer

UHF (300 – 3000 Mhz)

DME, Glideslope

SHF (3 – 30 GHz)

GPS

2. Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR)

Frequency Range108.00-117.95 Mhz

Dial that number into receiver

Draw Map Symbols

VOR radials

Go FROM the station

Line of Sight Transmission

+/- 1° accuracy

360 radials each heading directly away from station

Course required to travel directly from the station

Each radial corresponds to local magnetic Course

Receiver components

Omni-bearing selector (OBS)

Course deviation indicator (CDI)

To-from indicator

Course Selector

Off flag

Rabbit Ears

VOR receiving antenna on bottom of aircraft

VOR Classes (Service Volumes)

AIM 1-1-8

Terminal

1000’ – 12,000’ AGL

25 NM radius

Low altitude

1000’ – 18,000’ AGL

40 NM radius

High altitude

1000’ – 14,500’ AGL

40 NM radius

14,500’ – 18,000’ AGL

100 NM radius

18,000’ – 45,000’ AGL

130 NM radius

45,000’ – 60,000’ AGL

100 NM radius

VOR orientation

Depict location in relation to the station

Steps

Tune in

Identify

Morse code signal

Repeats every 10 seconds

“! C CCC !” Maintenance

No Signal – Off line

Center CDI with a FROM indication

VOR triangulation

VOR navigation and intercepting a radial

Steps

Tune in appropriate frequency

Identify station (Morse code)

Code repeats every ten seconds

Set Omni-bearing selector (OBS) to desired radial

Parallel Radial

Note deflection

Establish intercept angle

Cone of Confusion

Radials get closer together when closer to station

Full CDI deflection or waving CDI

TO-FROM changing back and forth or going offline

Station Passage

When TO-FROM indicator goes permanently

to TO or FROM

Reverse sensing

VOR receiver has no idea

what direction you are pointed

If your OBS selection & heading are opposite

you have reverse sensing

Flying from the station with a TO indication

Flying to the station with a FROM indication

VOR accuracy testing

(Required every 30 days for IFR flights.

VOR test facility (VOT)

+ or – 4° of 360° radial (FROM)

Check AF/D

Ground VOR check

+ or - 4° of specified radial

Can be found in airport facility directory (AF/D)

Airborne VOR check

+ or - 6° of specified radial

Landmark atleast 20 nm from station

Can be found in airport facility directory (AF/D)

On Airway & 1000’ AGL

Dual VOR

4° of each other

3. Distance measuring equipment (DME)

Often paired with VORs

VOR-DME

VORTAC

DME comes from TACAN portion

TACAN – Tactical Air Navigation

Slant range

Measures slant range distance

by measuring time of signal round trip

Station can handle requests of

up to 100 different aircraft

199 nm range

Accuracy ½ mile or 3% of distance

whichever is greater

Be atleast 1 nm away for each 1000' above station

for accuracy

Ident code every 30 sec.

Higher pitch than VOR ident

4. Area navigation (RNAV)

Definition

VORTAC based navigation allowing

point-to-point navigation

Using computer inputs to

generate VOR/DME waypoints

AKA “Pseudo VORTACs”

Long range navigation (LORAN)

Uses Master Station & Secondary Stations on the ground to find location

Inertial navigation system (INS)

Determines location by

measuring acceleration & turning

Becomes less accurate over time

Requires re-positioning

Very heavy & expensive

5. Automatic direction finder (ADF) in aircraft

Used in conjunction with

Non-directional radio beacon (NDB)

190 – 535 KHz

Dial that number into receiver

Definitions

Magnetic heading (MH)

Relative bearing (RB)

Magnetic bearing (MB)

Combination of MH & RB

Automatic direction finder (ADF) receiver components

ADF bearing indicator

Compass Card

Fixed card bearing indicator

Zero always appears at top of indicator

Equation to figure magnetic bearing

(MB) to the station- MB=MH+RB

My Body Must Have Red Blood

Also try examples w/ MB > 360°

Movable card bearing indicator

The azimuth card can be moved

So that it indicates magnetic heading at top of indicator

Automatic direction finder (ADF) navigation

Tune in appropriate frequency

Identify station (Morse code)

Must ID constantly while in use

Needle will point towards strongest signal

Directly at (NDB)

Homing

Flying a 0 relative bearing (RB)

With no wind correction angle

Tracking

Flying to the station with a wind correction angle

6. Global position system (GPS)- satellite based system

Receiver

Antenna on top of aircraft

Slanted with a fat base

Slant antenna is for built VHF comms

If GPS is equipped

Fat base is GPS receiver

Number of satellites

24 satellites and 5 spares

10,900 nm above the Earth

Atleast 5 always visible anywhere in the world

Broadcast navigation signals that

Receivers use to calculate position

Number of satellites needed to use accurately

3 satellites gives 2-D fix

4 satellites gives 3-D fix

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM)

Lets you know if

There aren’t enough satellites to determine position

If positioning error has occurred

Uses extra satellite for error checking

4 satellites for 2-D

5 satellites for 3-D

7. Air traffic control (ATC) services available to pilots

Radar

Radio Detection and Ranging

Primary radar- picks up all objects via Doppler effect

(Secondary radar)- picks up transponders

Air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS)

Transponder

Receiver

Shark fin antenna on bottom of aircraft

Modes and codes

OFF

STBY – Standby

ON

ALT

Mode C – Pressure Altitude

Radar Converts to True Altitude

Mode S – P.A. & Tail Number

Phaseology

Squawk

Squawk VFR

Ident

Stop Altitude Squawk

When you are sending bad data

Airport surveillance radar (ASR)

Used to coordinate traffic in a specific terminal area

Radar vectors- if lost

Radio

Direction finder steer (DF steer)

Provided by FSS

Uses pilot’s radio transmission to triangulate location

Climb, Conserve, Call, Confess, Comply

COMPLETION STANDARDS

This lesson will be complete when, the student displays an understanding of the material presented by passing the quiz assigned for this lesson with a 90 % or greater.

LESSON 16

3.0 Hours Ground Training

OBJECTIVES

During this lesson the student will be introduced to the usage of the Federal aviation regulations (FAR) and applicable sections. The student will also become aware of the physiological and psychological factors that affect the safety of flight.

Recommended Study Material and Equipment for This Lesson

The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)/Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)- chapter 8 of the (AIM). Other materials may be needed for class.

LESSON CONTENT

1. Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)

Go page by page to cover all relevant FARs

Part 1

Part 43

Part 61

SFAR No 73 – covers R22 & R44 competency

Part 61.113

Private pilots can’t fly for compensation or hire

We can

Demo flight if salesman w/ over 200 hours

Incidental to business

Charity

Towing gliders

Election of Federal Candidates

Sharing costs equally

Search and Rescue

Part 67

Part 71

Part 73

Part 91

Part 141

National transportation safety board (NTSB) part 830

Damage over $25K

Overdue

Collision in flight

Turbine structure failure

Accident

Fire in flight

Flight control malfunction

Inability of crew member to perform duties

2. Physiological Considerations

Fatigue

Will Kill You

Acute

Up late last night

Chronic

Haven’t had a full night’s sleep in days or weeks

Get enough sleep

Hypoxia

Will Kill You

Occurs when body tissues don’t receive enough O²

^{Story: Altitude chamber flight and physiological training @ William’s AFB}

Hypoxic Hypoxia

From lack of air pressure

Ratio of O² Remains constant

Time of useful consciousness

20,000’ MSL : 30 min or more

22,000’ MSL : 5 – 10 min

45,000’ MSL : 9 – 15 sec

Above 45,000’ MSL : 9 – 15 sec

Hypemic Hypoxia

Blood not able to carry O²

CO poisoning

from cabin heat

Leak in muffler shroud

from smoking

binds to reb blood cells 200 times more readily than O²

Blood donation

Stagnant Hypoxia

Poor blood circulation

Histotoxic Hypoxia

Body cells unable to use O²

Alcohol

Symptoms:

Headache

Decreased reaction time

Impaired judgment

Euphoria

Visual Impairment

Drowsiness

Lightheaded or dizzy

Tingling in fingers/toes

Numbness

Blue fingernails or lips (cyanosis)

Limp Muscles

Hyperventilation

Will Kill You

The excessive ventilation of the lungs caused by

very rapid & deep breathing

which results in excessive loss of CO²

Symptoms:

Headache

Decreased reaction time

Impaired judgment

Euphoria

Visual impairment

Drowsiness

Lightheaded or dizzy

Tingling in finger or toes

Numbness

Pale/Clammy appearance

Muscle spasms

Drugs and alcohol

Will Kill You

Alcohol

8 hours bottle to throttle

0.04 BAC

Under influence

Drugs

Over the counter

Read warnings

Illusions in flight

Will Kill You

Autokinesis

Light against dark background might appear to move

False Horizon

Sloping clouds obscure horizon

Landing Illusions

Cause to fly low approach

Rain

Haze

Over water

Night

Featureless terrain

Narrow runway

Upslope runway

Cause steep approach

Entering fog can cause pitch up

Wide runway

Down slope runway

Antidote

Use VASI at unfamiliar airports

Disorientation

Will Kill You

Spatial Disorientation

Caused by conflict between

Data from instrument scan and data from peripheral vision

Car next to you moves and you feel like you are moving

Vestibular Disorientation

Fluid in vestibular tubes providing false info

Vision in flight

Night adaptation

Rhodopsin aka “Vision Purple”

Causes rods to become more light sensitive

30 minutes to adapt to dark

Use O² above 5000' MSL @ night recommended

Use red light @ night to preserve night vision

Don’t look directly @ objects @ night

Peripheral vision is better @ night

Middle ear block

Pressure inequality

Val Salva maneuver

Decompression sickness after scuba diving

Wait 24 hours before flying above 8000’ MSL

3. Psychological Conditions

Stress

Affects Judgment

Physical

Temperature

Noise

Lack of Oxygen

Physiological