Colombia

Colombia is located in Northwestern South America.

Colonization

As early as 11,000 BC, the area that is now Colombia was inhabited by various Amerindian groups. The Muisca and Tairona (two divisions of the Chibcha Indians) as well as Quimbaya Indians inhabited the region immediately prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1499. The Spanish later established their first settlement in the region along the Caribbean coast in 1525. The region was colonized and made into a viceroyalty named New Granada. This area covered the northern part of South American, encompassing modern Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador. It was exploited for its gold, emeralds and tobacco. A separatist movement developed in the late 1700s, which led to independence from Spain in 1819 under the leadership of the legendary Simón Bolívar.

Learn more about Colombia

Colombian Americans

Motivated by ethnic pride and a desire to circumvent legal, racial, and cultural obstacles encountered in American life, Colombian Americans have maintained a distinct identity in the United States. In light of immigration laws that allow few to expect citizenship, they usually consider their stay in the United States temporary and retain strong ties to Colombia, where they plan to resettle permanently. Colombians with American permanent resident status return for visits as frequently as possible and above all at Christmas. Colombian Americans struggle daily with racial and economic discrimination and also with American culture, which many find alienating. Some preserve their own culture by operating within Latin American social and economic networks as much as possible; they nonetheless reject the notion of assuming a larger Latino identity, seeking instead to remain distinct from other groups, especially Puerto Ricans.

Ethnic Groups of Colombia

• Mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian) = 58%

• White = 20

• Mulatto (black–white) = 14%

• Black = 4%

• Mixed black-Amerindian (also called zambo) = 3%

• Amerindian = 1%

The largest indigenous populations in Colombia today are the Cauca, La Guajira and Guainia . Other indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Arhuacos, the Muisca, the Kuna, the Paez, the Tucano and the Guahibo.

Culture of Colombia

Hofstede's Dimensions

Uncertainty Avoidance

Colombia is similar to other Latin American countries according to Geert Hofstede’s analysis of cultural dimensions. In particular, Colombia ranks very high on uncertainty avoidance. This means that, as a society, Colombians tend to have a low tolerance for uncertainty. In order to reduce the potential for uncertainty, Colombians tend to follow strict rules, laws and policies. By doing this, they are able to have more control over potential outcomes, avoiding uncertain behaviors and situations. Because Colombians are focused on order, they do not readily accept change.

Contrastively, the United States ranks low on uncertainty avoidance. This means that Americans tend to have fewer rules and a high level of tolerance for different views and beliefs.

Individualism/Collectivism

Colombians rank low on individualism, meaning that they tend to be more collective. They identify with the “group” more than the individual. They commit themselves to their immediate family, extended family and other extended relationships. Loyalty to the group is of utmost importance, often superseding societal rules and regulations.

Unlike Colombia, the United States ranks high on individualism. Americans tend to be self-reliant, looking out for themselves and close family members.

Power Distance

Colombia ranks high on power distance, denoting inequality of power and wealth within the country. Colombia is comprised of three social classes, which historically have followed the color of one’s skin. White or light skin is associated with Spanish ancestry. Many equate being white with wealth. Whites occupy the upper class, mestizos and mulattos the middle and lower classes. Blacks and Indians dominate the bulk of the lower class. A wide gap separates the upper class from the rest of the population, who have little opportunity for social mobility. The gap is most apparent in the lowest class, whose members suffer from malnutrition, disease, poor housing and illiteracy.

The United States, on the other hand, ranks low on power distance, meaning that Americans tend to stress equality within society.

Masculinity/Femininity

Colombia also ranks high in masculinity. It has of the highest rankings of Latin American countries for this dimension. As a masculine culture, Colombia the roles of men and women are clearly delineated, with men tending to occupy prominent positions within society. Urbanization has changed the gender roles within Colombia. Men are seen as the breadwinners and disciplinarians of the family, also assuming responsibility for maintaining family pride and position within the community. Female roles vary according to social class. Within upper and some middle class families, women are expected not to work, which preserves family honor and status within the community. For women in lower and lower-middle class families, however, this is not an option. These women must work in order to contribute to the family’s subsistence. The line between the roles of men is becoming blurred as society changes. Women now hold higher-paying jobs and more prominent positions within society and taking an active political role. However, in general men still occupy the dominant role within the family.

Columbia, like much of Latin America, adheres to the idea of machismo. “Machismo is not synonymous with strict male dominance—it applies to the public personification of the male family head. Machismo requires separate male and female roles in economic life and consumption, the reliance of women on men, and distinct sets of life goals for men and women. Machismo defines a woman's role as a mother in addition to her conjugal role. The traditional male-female relationship assumes that the woman puts her husband's wishes before her own. She is responsible for the care of the children and household, but the husband makes decisions about the household's basic necessities.” Machismo is present more in rural areas than in urban centers within Colombia.

Like Colombia, the United States ranks high in masculinity, though not as high as Colombia.

Religion

Roman Catholicism was the country's official religion until the constitution was adopted in 1991, stating that there is no official state religion. According to a national poll by El Tiempo, the nation’s leading newspaper:

• 81% of Colombians are Roman Catholic

• 14% belong to other Christians denominations

• 5% belong to other religious faiths or movements such as Judaism, Islam, animism, syncretistic beliefs, agnosticism, and atheism or claim no religion

60% of respondents to the poll by El Tiempo reported that they did not actively practice their faith. Although the constitution established religious freedom, the Catholic Church continues to have significant influence within Colombia.

Healthcare

Healthcare in Colombia has greatly improved in the last 30 years. The infant mortality rate has been reduced and life expectancy has increased over the last decade. Change in policy, greater access to medical care facilities, and improvements in sanitation (i.e., running water and sewage systems) have helped to create better health care. During the 1970s and 1980s, Colombia developed “a public and private infrastructure of hospitals and other health care facilities, a widespread network of medical schools, and a specialized set of institutions responsible for formulating and handling public policy in the health sector.” Colombians have become more accepting of modern medicine due to shift in cultural views toward sexuality, medicine, disease prevention, nutrition, and exercise.

Though general improvement to health care had been made, many Colombians continued going without necessary services. This is because over the last several decades, improvements in health care have primarily focused on the upper and middle classes, urban areas, blue-collar workers and the central Andean region. The urban poor and those living in rural areas, in contrast, have not had good access to medical care. The government has seen this dichotomy and has tried to make improvements in health care to all levels of the population. “In 1993, Colombia departed from its older health care system to one of payment by capitation and structured competition among integrated health care service delivery systems; 5 million people in the poorest groups, previously excluded from the medical system, now have access to health services. According to a study done in 1995, 87% of the population (34 million people in 1993) had access to health care services.”

Improvements still need to be made. “As of 2000, an estimated 15% of children under five years old were considered to be malnourished. In 2000, 91% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 85% had adequate sanitation.”

Views of Disability

The official definition of disability in Colombia adheres to the World Health Organization guidelines. Accordingly, disability occurs not just within an individual but also between the individual and his or her physical and social environment.

There are currently no accurate data available in regard to the number of people with disabilities in Colombia. One survey, conducted in 1993 by the National Statistics Department (DANE), identified 593,618 people with disabilities, This corresponds to 1.85% of the population. Included in the group of people with disabilities were those with blindness, deafness, speech impairments, mental retardation or impairment and paralysis. However, due to methodological problems, this number was most likely much lower than the actual number. In general, WHO estimates that people with disabilities account for up to 12% of the population, a much higher number than proposed by DANE.

The definitions of certain disabilities may differ in Colombia as compared to the United States. In Columbia, for example “learning disabilities (LD) are not known as clinically different from mental retardation. There is no government recognition of the problem, and consequently there are no policies or guidelines on how to deal with the problem. The awareness that LD is a problem is growing slowly, but the government has left the problem and the solutions to private institutions, which work practically without any state intervention. People with LD are generally rejected from regular public and private schools. The alternative is to go to centers where some blanket teaching is given to people with all sorts of physical and mental problems. Students who are blind or deaf are the only groups for whom there are special programs. Socially, the individual with LD is segregated and treated as mentally retarded. For students with LD, there is no school system in which they can advance through each grade level, nor is vocational or higher education available to them.

Resources for Children with Disabilities

Many children with disabilities are not currently receiving needed services. Some “conservative estimates suggest that 450,000 children with disabilities may be excluded from the educational system,” based on 4% disability prevalence rate among school age children. Early intervention services are particularly lacking within the school system. “The Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Social Protection and the Colombian Institute for the Family Welfare are currently working jointly to identify and propose assistance alternatives in favor of people with severe disabilities that cannot be integrated into the education system. For people with disabilities covered by the [Mandatory Health Plan], neither public nor private institutions are currently offering the required comprehensive rehabilitation services. They often also fail to provide technical aids, medicines, and even surgical procedures as appropriate. Numerous summary proceedings have been initiated by people with disabilities in order to protect their constitutionally guaranteed right to specialized health care and to compel [Health Promotion Institutions] to provide required health services. Although many of these legal actions have been decided in favor of persons with disabilities, the government has not yet amended the health social security legislation.”

Language

Spanish

“The official language is Spanish, which was imposed during the colonial period. All Colombians speak it except some of the indigenous populations in the Amazonian basin. In major cities, English is used, particularly by the upper class, but it is not commonly understood or spoken. Outside urban areas, Spanish is virtually the only medium of communication. Colombia takes great care to preserve the linguistic 'purity' of Castilian Spanish.” “Colombian Americans traditionally consider themselves the stewards of the most elegant Spanish spoken in South America. After the 1500s, the upper class sought to preserve pure Castilian as the language of the colony; they succeeded largely because the rugged terrain made travel and communication between regions virtually impossible.” “All three classes in the interior, especially in Bogotá, speak a deliberate and grammatically correct Spanish, whereas coastal speech patterns have a rapid tempo.” Some Indian and African words were adopted by the middle and lower classes and eventually became standard in Colombian Spanish.

Phonological Differences Between Colombian Spanish and Other Dialects of Spanish

• The voiceless velar fricative [x] of most Spanish dialects is often realized as the voiceless glottal fricative [h].

• With the exception of Spanish spoken in the Nariño region, voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /g/ do not have the fricative allophones (/β/, /ð/, and /ɣ/, respectively) used in other Spanish dialects.

• The alveopalatal affricate /ʧ/ may be pronounced “pre-palatally”, or [j].

• “In certain areas some letters are omitted (a “d” occurring in the second-to-last syllable is suppressed in Antioquia and on the plains around Boyacá) or substituted for others, such as “j” for “s” on the Caribbean coast and in the Cauca River valley and “ch” for “tr” in Cundinamarca.”

Syntax and Morphology

• In Colombian Spanish, the diminutive forms -ico, -ica are often used in words with a penultimate “t”: gato (cat) –> gatico (small cat).

• The diminutive form is also applied to nouns, adjectives, and verbs: corriendo (running) –> corriendito; adverbs: ahora (now) –> ahorita; and prepositions: junto (next to) –> juntico.

• Redundant diminutives: when diminutives are applied both to the substantive and the adjective in the same sentence: el chocolate caliente (the hot cocoa) –> el chocolatico calientico.

• The emphatic diminutives: when two diminutive forms are applied in the same word, it gives more emphasis to the sentence: For example, with ahora (now), the simple diminutive= ahorita; double diminutive= ahoritica. váyase ahora mismo (get out right now) –> váyase ahoritica mismo (get out right now- emphatically).

• Bien (good) simple diminutive= buenecito; double diminutive= buenecitico. El carro esta bueno (The car is in good conditions) –> el carro está buenecitico (the car is in very good conditions).

• Paradoxically, in intra-family speech it is common to address the husband as “mijo” (short for mi hijo= my son), and the wife as “mija” (my daughter); while the sons are lovingly called “papito” (daddy) and the daughters are lovingly called “mamita” (mommy).

• Seldom, sentences are started with what seems to be an out of place preposition “que” (that), which makes the sentence sound as if the speaker is delivering a message from a third party. For example, saying: “que gracias” ([that] he/she says thank you) when returning a borrowed item. Instead of simply saying gracias (thank you). Colombian sources state that this came to be from the very customary use of kids in the family to run errands and deliver messages to others in the community, neighbors, butchers, cobblers, etc. Eventually, some people started using this form out of habit even when there was no third party involved.

Pragmatics

• The plural second person pronoun “vosotros” and its correspondent verbal forms (-ais/-eis), which is very common in Spain, is considered archaic in Colombia and all other Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America, and is restricted to ecclesiastic language.

• The singular second person pronoun “tú” is widely used in informal speech, while “usted” is used in formal speech. In Bogotá, the use of the “tú” is very restricted. Interestingly, even when talking with very close relatives such as parents, siblings or spouses, as a sign of respect, “usted” is used.

• Particular forms of pronouns are “vos” (similar to the Argentinian) used in the Paisa region and “sumercéd” (literally “your mercy”) used in Cundinamarca and Boyacá

Other Colombian Dialects of Spanish

The geographic isolation and diverse populations of the colonial departments encouraged at least nine regional dialects to develop. Certain characteristics are common to many or most of them.

Other Languages Spoken in Colombia

Besides Spanish, 77 languages are currently spoken. There are also two sign languages used throughout the country.

Common Language "Differences" for Colombians Learning English

Pronunciation

The following information is from Swan, M. and Smith, B. (2001).

Vowels

Spanish learners in general may have difficulty in contrasting English vowels, both in reception and production. Difficulties for Spanish-speakers from Colombia may include:

• Contrasting /i/ and /ɪ/ (“sheep” vs “ship”)

• Contrasting /ɑ/, /æ/ and /ʌ/ (“cot” vs. “cat” vs. “cut”)

• Contrasting /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ (“cot” vs. “caught”, a distinction made in some regions of the U.S.)

• Contrasting /u/ and /ʊ/ (“Luke” vs. “look”)

• Producing central vowels /ə/ and /ɜ/ (these often become /a/ because Spanish does not have a central vowel)

• Contrasting rhotacized vowels /ɚ/ and /ɝ/, which are often pronounced as /i/ or /e/ plus the flap /ɾ/ for the Spanish-speaker

• English diphthongs; the second vowel in an English diphthong tends to be fronted (e.g., /aɪ/ becomes /ai/)

Consonants

Many English consonants have equivalents or near equivalents in Spanish, though there are some complications for Spanish-speakers speaking English:

• Initial voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ are not aspirated in Spanish, unlike English. Unaspirated initial plosives are often perceived as voiced plosives to English-speakers.

• Word final plosives are rare in Spanish. Spanish speakers tend to devoice final plosives (e.g. pronounce “card” as “cart”)

• Spanish has the same nasals as English (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), however assimilation rules differ between the two languages. For example, “I’m going” may be pronounced /aiŋgoiŋ/

• Spanish speakers tend to replace final /n/ or /ŋ/ with /m/ sounds when speaking English. For example, “dream” may be pronounced “drean” or “dreang”.

• Spanish does not have the phoneme /z/ like English. Spanish-speakers tend to pronounce /z/ as /s/, so “lacy” and “lazy” are both pronounced “lacy”.

• Spanish also does not have the phoneme /ʃ/ like English. Spanish-speakers tend to pronounce /ʃ/ as /s/, so “she” and “sea” are both pronounced “sea”.

• Spanish does not have both phonemes /b/ and /v/. Spanish-speakers often pronounce both as /b/.

• Of the English sounds /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, Spanish only has /tʃ/, which is often pronounced /j/ in Colombia. The /j/ sound may be substituted for all four sounds in English.

• Spanish-speakers often substitute a flap /ɾ/ for the English /ɹ/ in all contexts.

• Spanish-speakers tend to delete word final consonants

Consonant Clusters

• Consonant clusters are less common in Spanish than in English, so Spanish-speakers tend to reduce clusters in English (e.g., “espress” for “express”)

• /s/ plus another consonant is never used alone in the initial word position. When speaking English, Spanish-speakers often insert /e/ or /ɛ/ before the cluster so that words like “Spain” become “Espain”.

Influence of orthography on pronunciation

Spelling in Spanish is much more phonological than in English (i.e., there is a closer letter to sound correspondence in Spanish than English). Because of this, Spanish-speakers who have some literacy background in Spanish tend to pronounce English words more phonetically, saying all of the letters in a word. For example, a Spanish speaker may pronounce “asked” as “asket”.

Intonation and Stress

“Spanish is a syllable-timed language. When Spanish speakers transfer the intonation patterns of their mother tongue into English, which is a stress-timed language, the result can be barely comprehensible to native English speakers. This is because the meaning or information usually conveyed in English by the combination of stress, pitch and rhythm in a sentence is flattened or evened out by the Spanish learner.”

Morphology/Syntax

The following information is from Swan, M. & Smith, B. (2001).

Word Order

• Spanish word order is generally subject-verb-object, as is English. However, Spanish allows for more flexibility in word order. When speaking English, Spanish-speakers may use a freer Spanish-like word order that does not sound correct in English.

• Adjectives and nouns typically come after head nouns, which is the opposite of English. For example, a Spanish speaker may say “ball blue” instead of “blue ball”.

• Spanish indirect objects usually come right after the verb, so a Spanish speaker may say “He gave to Mary the book.”

Questions

• Word order is freer when forming questions and auxiliary verbs are not used in Spanish for questions, such as in “do/does/did” in English.

• Spanish speakers may tag “no” to the end of a question (e.g., “You’re going to the game, no?”)

Negatives

• Spanish speakers may use “no” in place of “not” when speaking English.

• Spanish speakers tend to use double negatives when speaking English (e.g., “I never get nothing.”)

Verbs

• Spanish speakers have difficulty with verbs that are expressed with more than one word in English (e.g., “Throw out”) since verbs tend to be composed of one word only in Spanish.

• Some constructions like “I like ” may be difficult in English because of a different construction used in Spanish (e.g., “Ice cream likes me”).

Vocabulary

“Due to shared Latin influence English and Spanish have many cognates, and the corresponding collection of false friends, such as eventual (English translation > possible) or particular (English translation > private). Since the Latin-derived words in English tend to be more formal, the Spanish student will benefit when reading academic text. He or she may sound too formal, however, if using such words in everyday spoken English. Conversely, phrasal verbs, which are an essential aspect of colloquial English, are difficult for Spanish learners and may obstruct listening comprehension.”

Education

Only five years of primary school are offered in many rural areas. However, nine years of school are considered compulsory.

Literacy

Definition: age 15 and over can read and write

• Total population: 90.4% (2005 census)

• Male: 90.1%

• 93% in urban areas, 67% in rural areas.

Amount of Education (Primary to Tertiary)

• Total: 13 years (2008)

• Male: 13 years

• Female: 14 years

Percentage of Population in School

Primary age in school

• Total: 88.2%

• Male: 87.3%

• Female: 89.1%

Secondary age in school

• Total: 2.5%

• Male: 2.3%

• Female: 2.7%

Attitudes Toward Education in the United States

In general, Colombian Americans value education. However, according to one source, many Colombian parents are disappointed by American public schools; “they consider the curriculum lacking and are disturbed by the informal tone of the classroom, the rate of delinquency among American students, and the wide availability of drugs. They usually look to Catholic schools for an environment that emphasizes values in keeping with their own and enroll their children as soon as they can afford to do so.”

Implications for the Speech Language Pathologist

• The SLP should be cognizant of the differences between Spanish and English, realizing that differences may likely be a cause for negative transfer (see Common Language "Differences" for Colombians Learning English above).

• Many Colombians have a strong ethnic pride and often prefer being called Colombian. Be careful not to group them with other Spanish-speaking people from Latin America.

• Colombians tend to avoid uncertainty. When working with Colombian children, it may be helpful and culturally appropriate to provide a lot of structure and specific rules for the child to follow in therapy.

Other Considerations

• When talking with Colombians you may find that they stand closer to you than you are comfortable with. Many Colombians have a different sense of personal space than North Americans, tending to stand closer when conversing.

• Try not to yawn when in a meeting with Colombian parents, for example. Yawning in public is impolite for many Colombians.

• As for many people in North America, putting your feet up on a table or other piece of furniture can be seen as rude for Colombians. Avoid doing this in meetings or treatment.

• Schedule meetings and other appointments in advance.

• Punctuality is more relaxed for many Colombians. Try to allow for a little extra time for at the beginning of meetings for parents to arrive.

• Colombians tend to engage in relaxed conversation before getting to the point of a meeting. It may be good to allow some time for small talk before establishing the agenda for a meeting.

• Make sure to greet Colombians appropriately. Many Colombians shake hands, taking time when greeting another person. By properly greeting a Colombian, you show him or her respect.

• When addressing adults, it is good to call them Mr., Mrs. or Miss, plus their last name. In Spanish these are:

  • Mr. = Señor

  • Mrs. = Señora

  • Miss = Señorita

• Potential good conversation topics may include: history, culture, soccer, coffee or gold. Potential bad conversation topics may include: drug traffic, politics and religion. Try not to bring these up.

Original Contributor: Thom Retsema, Winter 2011