Generational Poverty
(This page needs to be critically analyzed for cultural responsiveness.)
Working with People Living in Generational Poverty
“There is nothing new about poverty. What is new is that we now have the techniques and the resources to get rid of poverty. The real question is whether we have the will.”
~Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., March 31, 1968
As in all other pages of this website, this information about poverty only accounts for general trends discovered by research. Not all people in poverty fit the following descriptions. Therefore, professionals should not make assumptions when working with those experiencing poverty. The information on this page is intended to help the reader understand some things they might need to consider when working with people who come from a background of poverty.
Definitions
There are several types of poverty; there are similarities and differences among the populations that are described with each definition. In order to understand the differences, three categories of poverty are defined below:
Situational Poverty
Having fewer resources (typically income) than one is accustomed to due to life events, such as the loss of a job, that change a family’s living standard between one and five years. Some common characteristics among many people in situational poverty include:
They grew up in a stable environment.
They may be surrounded by people who earn a living wage.
They attend (or have attended) school regularly.
They have health care.
They generally can return to the middle class.
They do not internalize poverty as being their fault.
Working-Class Poverty
Working-class poverty describes having income but not having savings or money to spend on non-necessities. Some common characteristics among many people in working-class poverty include:
They do not own property.
They live paycheck to paycheck.
They do not have health care.
They view poverty as a personal deficiency.
Generational Poverty
Generational poverty occurs when a family’s economic level remains low for two or more generations. Some common characteristics among many people who are from generational poverty include:
The family has never owned land or property.
They never knew anyone who benefited from education.
They never knew anyone who moved up or was respected in a job.
They are highly mobile and have moved around.
There is a high incidence of non-literacy in the family.
Facts and Statistics
Families and individuals are considered to be living at the poverty level if the total family or household income was less than the poverty threshold, which depends on family size, ages of household occupants, and the number of children under 18. The poverty threshold, which the US Census Bureau uses, is changed yearly to account for inflation. However, the poverty threshold does not account for the cost of living in particular locations; it is a national statistic. Research shows that families generally need two times the amount defined as the federal poverty level to meet basic needs. A family who earns below the amount defined as twice the federal poverty level is considered to be living at the low-income level.
(ADD INFO ABOUT CURRENT POVERTY STATISTICS)
Legislation
In January of 2002, President George Bush reauthorized and amended federal education programs established under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) by signing the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was originally enacted in 1965 as part of President Johnson’s “War on Poverty.” The purpose was to create equity in the classroom between children from low-income families and children from middle- and upper-class families by providing extra funding to schools with a proportionately large number of low-income students. Low-income status is determined by the percent of students eligible for free lunches or receiving public assistance. Research shows Title I funding has helped students from low-income families improve performance, but performance levels are not commensurate with those from higher-income families. NCLB is often criticized for blaming schools, particularly those with a high number of students who live in poverty, for not meeting standards. Critics believe that NCLB should instead work to remediate the inequalities in access to quality education that exist between schools in high-income and low-income areas.
Communication Styles
Oral versus Print (is this section accurate?)
In general, there are two broad domains of language communication: oral and print. Print communication is highly valued in the US education system. People from generational poverty tend to favor oral communication, and people from middle-class backgrounds tend to favor print communication. Understanding communication systems is important when working with people of different cultures and backgrounds.
Formal versus Casual Register
Within communication styles, several registers can be used. Registers describe how language is used in different contexts. Two registers that might be important to distinguish when working with children and adults from a background of generational poverty are the formal register and the casual register.
Formal register describes speaking in complete sentences and using specific words that are considered appropriate at work, school, and for business transactions. Formal register contains little, if any, slang.
Casual register describes how language is used in conversation with friends. Words used are less specific and the message depends more on nonverbal cues than messages using a formal register.
Some people have not been exposed to formal register which is the style commonly used in schools, hospitals, and clinics. If this is the case, explicit teaching should be considered to support the person's success in a particular environment.
Working with People who are Living in Poverty
There are many people who criticize information such as that shown below for treating people who come from and live in generational poverty as a cultural group, for creating stereotypes, and for viewing people from generational poverty as if they have deficits other than economic ones. Furthermore, these critics feel that working with people in the manner described below ignores the systemic problem of classism that exists in our society. Others believe that as we try to change the system, we should understand how to help people living in poverty by understanding how their lives might be different from those of people from other classes. For these people, understanding personal values and beliefs is important when working with people of different cultures and backgrounds, such as generational poverty.
Suggestions for Working with People who Live in Generational Poverty
*This list below is compiled from research specifically on participants who have come from a background of generational poverty and from personal interviews with people from the same population. The suggestions were made for teachers in the classroom but can be applied to other professionals and settings.
Expect all students to learn; tell them what you expect from them.
Give meaningful assessments that are related to curriculum and instruction.
Give thoughtful feedback.
Form personal relationships with those you are working with.
Discuss different economic situations with students to reduce status issues between students.
Make curriculum and activities enjoyable.
Create mentor programs with mentors who understand generational poverty.
Understand oral culture and include literacy approaches that include oral culture learning styles.
Learn about causes of poverty, what people in poverty often experience, and best practices for working with people from generational poverty.
Educate others on causes and experiences of generational poverty; do not tolerate low expectations.
Collaborate with community groups who work to help families in generational poverty succeed
Include generational poverty in multicultural discussions
Create family involvement by focusing on common interests (the students).
Create safe, clean school grounds with current textbooks and materials.
Do not judge families or behavior.
Make extra efforts to ensure understanding; silence does not mean understanding.
Examine your own attitudes about people who live in poverty.
Consider rewards and motivators – are they based on middle-class beliefs and values?
Reconsider homework, something that does not fit well with a generational poverty lifestyle. Is there another way to ensure learning?
Expression appreciation to parents and family members for any effort shown to help their child/relative/spouse succeed.
Implications for the SLP
Language Development and School Readiness
Poverty does not cause language impairments. However, some children who were born into generational poverty face issues such as hunger and limited or no access to health care. Research shows that these issues, along with low educational levels of caregivers, can affect the language skills of these children.
Economic factors can also affect school readiness skills. The number of books in a child’s home positively correlates with the child’s emergent literacy skills. Because families with fewer economic resources cannot always purchase books, their children often have fewer early literacy experiences. Therefore, their beginning literacy knowledge is lower than their middle-class counterparts.
Assessment
Because children from low-SES backgrounds, including generational poverty and working-class poverty, show up to school with fewer pre-academic skills and struggle more in school, a disproportionate number are referred to special education programs. Furthermore, standardized tests used to qualify children for these special programs are biased against those from low-SES backgrounds. This results in special education programs with a high number of kids from poverty. Because cultural and linguistic diversity overlaps with poverty in the US, a disproportionate number of culturally and linguistically diverse kids are also included in special education programs.
When assessing children from generational poverty, it is crucial to assess their ability to learn rather than their knowledge, which is affected by factors such as their parents' education level, their culture, and the family’s economic status. Currently, five steps are considered important to understanding a child’s underlying language-ability rather than their knowledge:
Conducting a screening and response to intervention (RTI)
Gathering a thorough case history
Evaluating related areas such as vision and hearing
Modifying standard assessments to make them appropriate for those who are from generational poverty
Using non-standardized, informal, and alternative measures such as processing tasks
Screening and Response to Intervention
Screening a child for language intervention can help to understand if further testing is needed. However, they can also lead to unnecessary, standardized testing that might be biased against those from a background of low-socioeconomic status. If a teacher refers a child for testing, many schools now use an RTI model to determine if the child solely needs to adjust to school culture or language impairment is present.
To implement RTI, the appropriate specialist works with the child, often in the classroom, to give extra support when needed. If the child benefits from intervention and performs at a similar level to their classmates after a specified amount of time, screening and assessment are avoided. However, if the child continues to perform at lower levels than others of the same age, then a screening and possibly an assessment are completed.
Case History
Before formal assessments are administered, a detailed case history should be collected to understand the child’s background related to their success in school. The case history should include parent interviews, teacher interviews, previous assessment records, and pertinent medical records.
In addition to the usual case history information, when working with people from generational poverty, consider variables such as family living patterns and language use in the home with the following questions.
Is there a history of homelessness or frequently moving?
Are languages other than English spoken at home?
Do the adults in the home use a formal or casual register?
Related Areas for Evaluation
As in all cases, areas that might be related to language learning and/or academic success should be considered. Check the child’s records for hearing and vision evaluations. If there is no history, these should be addressed.
Standardized Assessments
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) specifically states that professionals must use unbiased test materials and administer them in a nondiscriminatory manner. Because many standardized tests have been shown to discriminate against those from poverty, tests can be altered to assess underlying language ability instead of a knowledge base.
These are some suggestions for using standardized tests with children who live in an environment of generational poverty.
1. Give the child extra time to answer.
2. Explain the directions thoroughly, especially for confusing items.
3. Allow the child to complete extra practice items and examples.
4. Change items that students are likely to miss based on experience (e.g., if a child has never been to the zoo, any item that involves a zoo should be omitted or changed).
3. Continue administering the test even if the ceiling has been reached. Children who have changed schools several times might have “pockets of knowledge” that appear later on the test.
6. Administer the test over several sessions to familiarize the child with the examiner.
7. Use motivators to encourage a child to do his or her best.
8. Begin with the easiest tasks so the child can experience success.
9. Be personable with the child.
Informal and Alternative Measures
Although evaluating children from generational poverty interacting with adults is important, assessing how they interact with peers from similar backgrounds is more important. The goal is to assess the students' semantic and pragmatic skills to determine if they can effectively communicate in their daily environments. Even if a student uses a casual register rather than Standard American English, observations can be made that can help determine whether the child has a language impairment or not.
These are some suggestions for informal evaluation.
1. Does the child use gestures or other nonverbal communication when it would be more appropriate to speak?
2. Do peers understand the student?
3. Can the student easily communicate basic needs?
4. Does the child respond when peers initiate interactions?
5. Does the student verbally initiate interaction with peers?
6. Does the student respond appropriately to questions?
7. Can the student convey thoughts sequentially and maintain a topic?
8. Does the child take turns?
9. Does the student need to have basic information repeated in order to understand it?
Another option for assessment is to use dynamic assessment. Static assessments measure a student's knowledge at the time of testing. However, dynamic assessment evaluates a child's ability to respond to teaching instruction and support. When using dynamic assessment with a child from generational poverty, the professional evaluates how much the child modified their skills based on the instruction and how much support was required by the professional.
Treatment
When working with people from a background of generational poverty, it is important to be aware of differences that might exist between the clinician and the client. However, it is also crucial not to stereotype or judge people and behaviors. Research shows that some people from generational poverty might feel shamed or humiliated, particularly regarding their appearance, family members' appearances, jobs, and money. Others do not. Clinicians should use this information along with the suggestions listed on this page to form meaningful, personal relationships with clients to support their success.
References and Resources (link broken)