Unit 2: Student Diversity and Literacy

What is language development? 

Language development is a fundamental aspect of child development, encompassing the processes through which individuals learn to understand, use, and enjoy language (Raising Children Network, 2023). This development is the foundational first step in literacy and provides the basis for learning to read and write (Raising Children Network, 2023).

It follows a clear progression, beginning with pre-linguistic sounds and gestures in infancy and advancing to the use of complex words and sentences. More than just vocabulary, this development supports a child's holistic ability to:

• Communicate needs and ideas.

• Express and understand complex emotions.

• Think critically, learn, and solve problems.

• Develop and maintain social relationships.

How does language development impact reading comprehension?

Language development has a direct and critical impact on reading comprehension. The "Simple View of Reading" framework posits that reading comprehension is the product of two distinct skill sets: word recognition (decoding) and language comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986, as cited in Malcolm, 2022).

A student cannot comprehend a written text if they do not first understand the language it is written in. Spoken language skills, particularly vocabulary, listening comprehension, and understanding of grammatical structure, are fundamental precursors to reading success (Duff & Tomblin, 2018). If a student has a limited vocabulary or struggles to understand complex sentences in spoken language, they will face the same bottleneck when encountering those words and structures in print.

How do differences in languages impact literacy development?

Differences in languages, especially for bilingual or multilingual learners, introduce a unique dynamic to literacy development. This is where, as an ESL teacher, understanding language processes is essential.

When bilingual children learn to read, they naturally compare the similarities and differences between their languages (Mathers, 2020). This is not a hindrance; in fact, research shows that bilingual learners can transfer orthographic (writing system), phonological (sound system), and semantic (meaning) skills from their first language (L1) to their second (L2), which actively supports their ability to read in both (Mathers, 2020).

This process is central to the concept of interlanguage. Interlanguage is the dynamic, rule-governed linguistic system a learner constructs as they acquire an L2. It features elements of both the L1 and L2, and it evolves as the learner progresses.

We can see an ELL's interlanguage at various stages of second language acquisition:

• 1. Pre-production: The interlanguage is largely receptive. A student might be able to point to the "dog" in a book but not say the word.

• 2. Early Production: The interlanguage emerges in one- or two-word phrases. Example: A student might point and say, "book no," transferring a simple L1 structure.

• 3. Speech Emergence: The interlanguage produces simple sentences that often show L1 influence. Example: A Mandarin-speaking student might say, "He no like read," transferring the S-Adv-V (Subject-Adverb-Verb) structure from Mandarin rather than using the English auxiliary verb "doesn't" (S-Aux-V). This is a predictable step, not an error.

• 4. Intermediate Fluency: The interlanguage becomes more complex. Example: A Spanish-speaking student might say, "I have 15 years," a direct translation of the L1 structure ("Tengo 15 años") instead of the English "I am 15 years old."

• 5. Advanced Fluency: The student's interlanguage is near-native in social contexts, but they are still developing the complex academic language (CALP) needed for high-level literacy.

How do we assess students’ literacy levels?

Assessing literacy requires a comprehensive, "assessment for learning" system that informs instruction rather than just ranking students (Malcolm, 2022). This system should include several types of assessment:

1. Universal Screening: These are brief, standardized measures (e.g., assessing phonemic awareness, phonics, or oral reading fluency) given to all students multiple times per year. The goal is to efficiently identify which students are "at risk" for reading difficulties (Malcolm, 2022).

2. Diagnostic Assessment: For students identified as at-risk, diagnostic assessments are used to "probe deeper" (Malcolm, 2022). These are more in-depth inventories that pinpoint which specific skills a student has mastered and which need to be taught (e.g., "Can the student segment three-phoneme words?" or "Can they decode words with consonant digraphs?") (Malcolm, 2022).

3. Progress Monitoring: After an intervention begins, these are brief, frequent assessments (e.g., weekly) that measure a student's response to instruction (Malcolm, 2022). This allows a teacher to quickly adjust their teaching if a student is not making progress, rather than waiting for the next universal screener (Malcolm, 2022).

For ELLs, it is crucial to distinguish whether a literacy challenge stems from a language comprehension gap (e.g., they don't know the vocabulary in the passage) or a decoding issue. Assessments must also be interpreted with the student's interlanguage in mind.

How can we differentiate instruction to meet diverse literacy needs?

Differentiation involves "shaking up" the classroom by adjusting instruction to meet the unique needs of students based on their readiness, interests, and learning profile (Perez, 2019; Tomlinson, 2001, as cited in Perez, 2019). Teachers can differentiate content (what is taught), process (how it is taught), product (how learning is shown), and the environment (classroom climate).

A powerful and motivating strategy for differentiation is the Choice Board (Perez, 2019). This is an organizer, often in a tic-tac-toe format, that gives students a variety of activities to choose from to demonstrate their knowledge.

Choice boards are an excellent tool for diverse literacy needs because:

• They empower students: Giving learners a choice often motivates them to do something rather than nothing.

• They target different profiles: The options can appeal to different types of learners. For a vocabulary review, one option might be "Create Frayer cards" (analytical), while another is "Draw a scene using the words" (creative).

• They accommodate different readiness levels: The options on the board can be "more or less difficult or personalized." A teacher could also offer two separate choice boards with different levels of complexity.
  
  

Other key strategies include flexible grouping (grouping students based on a specific, temporary skill need, not a permanent "low" or "high" label) and tiered assignments (where all students work on the same objective, but the task is modified in complexity) (Perez, 2019).

References

Buechel, L. L. (n.d.). Motivated to Work: The Power of Choice Boards. English Teaching Forum, 31-37.

Duff, D., & Tomblin, J. B. (2018). Literacy as an Outcome of Language Development and its Impact on Children’s Psychosocial and Emotional Development. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development.

Malcolm, U. (2022, March 22). Evidence-Based Assessment in the Science of Reading. LD@school.

Mathers, C. (2020, October 30). Bilingualism and Literacy Development. Bilingualism Matters.

Perez, K. (2019, May 14). Differentiated Reading Instruction: Multiple Pathways to Literacy Success. Solution Tree Blog.

Raising Children Network. (2023, December 19). Language development in children: 0-8 years. raisingchildren.net.au.