Medicine

Dr. Patricia Bath was born in Harlem, New York. In 1959, she was selected from a vast number of students across the country for a summer program at Yeshiva University sponsored by the National Science Foundation. While only sixteen years old, she worked in the field of cancer research and developed a mathematical equation that could be used to predict the growth of cancerous tumors. She was presented with the 1960 Mademoiselle Magazine Merit Award. It only took her 2 ½ years to graduate from high school.

In 1964, she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Hunter College in New York. She then enrolled in medical school at Howard University in Washington, DC. She worked internationally while in medical school and graduated, with honors, in 1968.

After earning her doctorate, she moved back to New York to serve as an intern at Harlem Hospital and accepted a fellowship in ophthalmology at Columbia University. While working in these two very different environments, she discovered blacks were twice as likely to suffer blindness than whites and that blacks were eight times more likely to suffer blindness from glaucoma than whites. As a result, she promoted the concept of Community Ophthalmology, an outreach program to serve the poor for glaucoma and cataracts screening.

In 1973, she became the first black person to complete a residency in ophthalmology. She moved to California and became a faculty member at UCLA and the Charles R. Drew University. In 1976, she co-founded the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness based on the principle that "eyesight is a basic human right." In 1983, she co-founded and chaired the Ophthalmology Residency Training Program and became the first woman in the country to hold such a position.

In 1981, she invented a device called a "Laserphaco Probe" which would vaporize the cataracts in the eye within a matter of minutes rather than drilling into the eye and scraping out the cataracts as was common practice. She went on to hold three other patents on medical devices, her latest in 2000. She is the first African-American woman to receive medical patents in history.

Patricia Bath passed away in 2019 at the age of 76. She was an American pioneer in the field of ophthalmology. Her work has helped improve the lives of millions of people around the world. Her contributions to medicine have made her a great American.

Leonidas Berry was born in Woodsdale, North Carolina in 1902. He grew up in Norfolk, Virginia. He attended Wilberforce University and graduated in 1924. He then received a second B.S. degree from the University of Chicago and his M.D. from Rush Medical College in 1929. In 1933, he received his M.S. in pathology from the University of Illinois. He then became the first black physician appointed to the medical attending staffs at both the Cook County Hospital and Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago.

Dr. Berry was the first American doctor to use the fiber-optic gastro-camera to view inside the digestive tract. He became the co-creator of the Eder-Berry Gastroscope, an instrument used to take tissue samples from the stomach for direct examination. His work in this field revolutionized the medical field. He also devoted much of his time to working in both Illinois and Alabama for people who had never seen a doctor. He authored hundreds of medical articles and contributed to 12 books. Dr. Berry served as the president of the National Medical Association from 1965 to 1966. Also in 1965, President Lyndon Johnson appointed him to the National Advisory Council for the Heart Disease, Cancer and Stroke Program.

Berry retired from Cook County Hospital in 1975 after training nearly 500 postgraduate residents. He received the First Annual Clinical Achievement Award from the American College of Gastroenterology in 1988. He was awarded the Freedom Award for Public Service from the Chicago Chapter of the NAACP. He lectured during much of his retirement and championed efforts to support hospitals in black communities. His contributions to medicine and health have helped to save countless lives and improve treatments for patients throughout the world. His efforts in medicine have made him a great American.

Alexa Canady was born in Lansing, Michigan in 1950. Her father was a dentist and her mother was the national president of the Delta Sigma Theta Sorority. Alexa was one of only two black students in her school. She was an exception student and was named National Achievement Scholar in 1967. During high school, she attended a health careers summer program for minority students at the University of Michigan. It sparked her interest in medicine and she decided to attend the University of Michigan. She graduated in 1971 with a degree in zoology. She decided to stay at Michigan and attend medical school.

While in medical school, she became fascinated in neurosurgery. Many of her advisors discouraged her from this career path due to her race. She decided to keep moving in this direction and she was accepted as a surgical intern at Yale-New Haven Hospital in Connecticut. She graduated cum laude from medical school in 1975.

After medical school, Canady moved to the University of Minnesota and became the first female African-American neurosurgery resident in the United States. After completing her residency in 1981, she became the first female African-American neurosurgeon in the nation. She later became the Director of Neurosurgery at Children’s Hospital in Detroit as well as a professor at Wayne State University. She became a leading expert in craniofacial abnormalities, epilepsy, hydrocephalus, pediatric neurosurgery and spinal cord tumors.

Canady was elected to the Alpha Omega Alpha Honorary Medical Society in 1975. She was Teacher-of-the-Year in Michigan in 1984. She has received two honorary doctorates and was inducted into Michigan Women’s Hall of Fame in 1989. Today, she is retired for medicine and has devoted much of her time on helping promote research on health concerns for black patients. Her work and career has made Dr. Canady a great American.

Benjamin Carson was born in Detroit, Michigan in 1951. Carson's mother divorced when he was eight years old and she worked many odd jobs to support the family. From an early age, Carson thought of a career in medicine. He excelled in school thanks to his mother's insistence that he read and study regularly at home. He graduated with honors from Southwestern High School.

Carson was able to obtain a scholarship to Yale University and received a degree in psychology in 1973. He then enrolled in the School of Medicine at the University of Michigan. He decided to work toward a degree as a neurosurgeon rather than a psychologist. After earning his medical degree, he moved to Baltimore, Maryland and took up residency at Johns Hopkins University in 1977.

Carson excelled as a surgeon at Johns Hopkins. By 1982, he became the chief resident in neurosurgery. In 1983, he was invited to take a position in Perth, Australia for one year. Afterward, he returned to Johns Hopkins and became the director of pediatric neurosurgery. He was only 33 years old.

In 1987, Carson made international headlines by separating two 7-month old craniopagus twins from Germany. He directed a team of 70 doctors, nurses and support staff to separate the two twins in a 22 hour successful surgery. It was the first surgery of its kind anywhere in the world. He would have success again in 1997 by separating two boys connected at the top of their heads in a 28-hour operation. His greatest challenge was in 2003 when he separated two Iranian women that had been joined at the head for 29 years. He tried to talk both of them out of the procedure because of the risks, but they said they would "rather die" than stay connected. The surgery lasted 52 hours and involved a team of 100 medical personnel. Shortly after the surgery, both twins died and Carson was devastated. However, he was hailed by the medical community for his brave attempt to help these two women.

In 2008, President George W. Bush honored Dr. Carson with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award. Dr. Carson has written four bestselling books. In 2009, a television movie called "Gifted Hands" was aired on TNT with Academy Award winner Cuba Gooding, Jr. playing Dr. Carson. After retiring from medicine, Dr. Carson ran for president in the Republican primaries in 2016. After the election of Donald Trump, Carson was picked to be the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. He continues to work in public service to this day and continues to be a Great American.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark was born in the American territory of the Panama Canal Zone in 1914. His parents, believing that he could receive a better education in the United States, sent him to Harlem in New York City when he was five years old. He graduated from high school an accomplished student and decided to attend Howard University in Washington, DC in 1931.

While at Howard, Clark wanted to become a medical doctor. However, in his second year at university, Clark changed his mind when he met Francis Sumner, the Father of Black American Psychology. After completing both his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees at Howard, he decided to stay and teach in Washington. After just one year of teaching, Clark decided to pursue his doctorate and he attended Columbia University in New York. In 1940, he became the first African-American to receive a doctorate in psychology at Columbia. Shortly after, he married Mamie Phipps, the second African-American ever to receive the same doctorate.

After briefly teaching at the Hampton Institute in Virginia, Clark became the first permanent black professor at the City College of New York in 1942. He taught there for 35 years and was a guest professor at Harvard, Columbia and the University of California at Berkeley. From this position, he was able to do extensive research into the psychological effects of racism and segregation.

Clark developed the Northside Center for Child Development in New York City, a program aimed to help poverty stricken children. His wife was named it director. Clark also started the Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited. It was also during this time that he conducted his most famous experiment that changed the field of psychology. Clark and his wife published five studies of black children between 1939 and 1950 with the use of dolls. Children were given two identical dolls except for hair and skin color. When black children in segregated were asked which one was the “good” or “pretty” doll, they usually picked the “white” doll. The research, which originated from the master’s thesis of his wife Mamie, was used to prove the negative effects of segregations. The Clarks became expert witnesses in many cases, include a case that was combined with “Brown v Board of Education” in 1954.

In 1966, Clark became the first and only African-American to serve as the president of the American Psychological Association. In 1967, he was appointed to the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders by President Lyndon Johnson. He served for many years on the board of the New York Civil Rights Commission. He authored many books and did televised interviews of many famous black Americans, including Dr. Martin Luther King, Malcom X, and James Baldwin. His work in child psychology and civil rights made Dr. Clark a great American.

Mamie Phipps was born in Hot Springs, Arkansas in 1917. Her father was a doctor and the owner of a spa for blacks. She graduated from Langston High School and was offered several scholarships. She chose to go to Howard University in Washington DC as a mathematics major with a minor in physics.

While she was at Howard University, she became very discouraged in mathematics due to the lack of support from her professors. She then met her future husband, Kenneth Clark, who was working on his Master’s in psychology. She was introduced to Fr. Francis Sumner, the Father of American Black Psychology. Dr. Sumner’s support was such that she changed her major to psychology. However, she was aware that there were few if any black female psychologist and that finding work might be difficult. She took this, however, to be a “silent” challenge.

In 1937, while Kenneth was at Columbia University and she was still at Howard, they secretly eloped and the marriage was kept secret until she graduated. She graduated magna cum laude from Howard and began her Master’s program. She became increasingly interested in childhood development. Her Master’s thesis was “The Development of Consciousness of Self in Negro Pre-School Children.”

In 1939 and 1940, the Clarks wrote three major articles on the development of children in a segregated environment. She developed a test with dolls to help in their research. Children were given two identical dolls except for hair and skin color. When black children in segregated were asked which one was the “good” or “pretty” doll, they usually picked the “white” doll. The research, which originated from the master’s thesis of his wife Mamie, was used to prove the negative effects of segregations. The Clarks became expert witnesses in many cases, include a case that was combined with “Brown v Board of Education” in 1954.

Mamie became the first African-American woman to graduate with a doctorate from Columbia University in psychology. She found it difficult to find work being a black female. Clark found a job working at the Riverdale Home for Children in New York. Clark and her husband developed the Northside Center for Child Development in New York City, a program aimed to help poverty stricken children and became its first director.

Both she and her husband published many articles on child psychology until her death in 1983. Her work as a black female psychologist made her a great American.

Jewel Plummer Cobb was born in Chicago in 1924 and was the great-granddaughter of a freed slave. Both of her parents were college educated. Jewell graduated from high school with honors with a focus on biology. She started college at the University of Michigan in 1942, but left dissatisfied with the segregated dormitories of the university. She transferred to Talladega College in Alabama where she was to earn her Bachelor's degree in biology.

In 1945, Jewel was rejected for a teaching position at New York University because he was black, however, she so impressed the faculty there that she eventually was awarded the position. By 1947, she had earned her Master's Degree and in 1950, she had received her doctorate in cell physiology. In 1949, she was appointed an independent investigator at the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory. She also held postdoctoral positions at Harlem Hospital Cancer Research Foundation, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and the National Cancer Institute.

One of her greatest achievements in medicine involved her research on the treatments for melanoma. Dr. Cobb tested methotrexate and found it effective on skin, lung, and breast cancer as well as childhood leukemia.

Her work made her a role model for countless African-Americans seeking a college education. In 1993, she received a Lifetime Achievement Award by the National Academy of Science. She served as dean at two different universities and later became the President of California State University at Fullerton from 1981 to 1990. Cobb passed away in 2017. Her achievements in cancer research and education made her a great American.

Charles Drew was born in Washington, DC. After graduating high school, he attended Amherst College in Massachusetts on an athletic scholarship in track and football. After graduating, he was unable to attend medical school because of finances, so he worked as a biology instructor at Morgan College in Baltimore for two years. In 1928, he enrolled at McGill University in Montreal. There, he became an honor student graduating second in his class. He returned to the United States after the death of his father and became an instructor at Howard University's medical school in 1935. Afterwards, he did graduate work at Columbia University and earned his Doctor of Medical Science degree, the first ever awarded to an African-American.

While at Columbia University in New York, he studied blood-related matters with Dr. John Scudder. Drew developed a method for processing and preserving blood plasma. This process had great implications because plasma lasts much longer than whole blood, making to possible to be stored in a bank for a long period of time.

As World War II was being fought in Europe, Drew headed an organization called "Blood for Britain." He organized the collection of blood plasma and its shipment to England. He collected over 1800 gallons of blood plasma for the war effort. In 1941, he was recruited for blood bank efforts for the American Red Cross, however he became very frustrated at the military's insistence that blood be segregated. Outraged by this policy, he resigned after just a few months.

Drew returned to Howard University and headed the university's Department of Surgery. He became chief surgeon at Freedman's Hospital. He was named the first African-American examiner for the American Board of Surgery. In 1944, he was honored with the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP for his efforts in creating blood banks and plasma collection.

Dr. Drew's contribution to medicine has had a profound effect on the nation and the world. His work in blood transfusion and blood banks revolutionized medicine saving countless lives. Today, there have been postage stamps made, naval ships christened and numerous buildings and bridges named in his honor. He is considered a great American.

Robert Tanner Freeman was born in Washington, DC in 1846. His parents were slaves who bought their freedom sometime before Robert’s birth. His family took the name “Freeman” because of their transition. At an early age, Freeman had an interest in medicine. He began working for a white dentist, Dr. Henry Bliss Noble, as a dental assistant and clerk. Dr. Noble encouraged Freeman to pursue a career in dentistry. Most dentists of the time received no formal education and learned their trade through informal apprenticeship.

During this period of the 19th century, there was a movement to formalize educational programs for dentistry. Freeman applied to two independent dental schools and was rejected on racial grounds. Dr. Noble petitioned his friend Dr. Nathan Keep, the first Dean of the Harvard Dental School, to accept Freeman despite his race. Freeman graduated Harvard in 1869 as the first true African-American dentist in American history.

He returned to Washington, DC in 1869 to practice in the same building as his mentor. He helped service many in the black community with professional care that few white professionals would be willing to give. Unfortunately, Freeman died four years later of a possible cholera outbreak. His legacy lived on, inspiring more African-American to go into the medical field. His grandson, Robert Weaver, became the first African-American presidential cabinet member under President Lyndon Johnson. Despite his short life, Dr. Freeman contributions paved the way for others. Dr. Freeman was a great American.

Mildred Jefferson was born in Pittsburg, Texas in 1926. She was raised in Carthage, Texas. Her father was a Methodist minister and her mother was a school teacher. As a young girl, she would follow the town doctor around as he rode in his horse and buggy. She became fascinated by his work and it inspired her to become a doctor. She graduated from high school at the age of 15 with honors.

Jefferson attended Texas College and graduated at the age of 18. Because she was too young to enter medical school, she attended Tufts University in Boston and received her Master's Degree in Biology. At the age of 20, she became the first African-American woman accepted into Harvard Medical School. She graduated in 1951 from medical school. She completed her surgical internship at Boston City Hospital, another first for an African-American woman. Jefferson also became the first woman member of the Boston Surgical Society.

In 1970, Dr. Jefferson became one of the founders of the Massachusetts Citizens for Life, an organization against the practice of abortion. In 1971, she became a board member of the National Right to Life Committee. She impressed people with her public speaking abilities and her firm belief that life begins at the moment of conception. She advocated for Constitutional protections for the fetus. In 1972, she appeared on the nationally-aired television show, "The Advocate." Ronald Reagan, future President of the United States, was so moved by her arguments that he wrote her a letter stating that he had permanently changed his stance on abortion from pro-choice to pro-life.

In 1975, Dr. Jefferson became the President of the National Right to Life committee. She travelled the country giving speeches and stating the arguments against the 1973 Roe v Wade Supreme Court decision. She served on the boards of over 30 Right to Life committees. She was awarded numerous honorary degree for her work. This included an honorary degree from the College of the Holy Cross alongside fellow right to life advocate Mother Theresa.

Dr. Jefferson was intensely involved in politics. She was a Republican, but campaigned for pro-life democrats to be elected to office. She was called to Capitol Hill numerous times to give her testimony before Congress. She worked with Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina and Representative Henry Hyde of Illinois to craft a bill defining the beginning of life to be conception. In 1980, she formed the Right to Life Political Action Committee.

Dr. Jefferson was an small woman with a large voice for her cause. She was never afraid to face pro-abortion advocates to argue her cause. She and her organizations helped support the elections of hundreds of people to political office at state and national levels. Her passion and crusade for the cause of pro-life made her a great American.

Edith Mae Irby was born in Conway, Arkansas in 1927. She suffered from rheumatic fever as a child and lost her sister and father to typhoid fever. After her father’s death, she moved to Hot Springs, Arkansas where she graduated first in her class from Langston Secondary School in 1944. She earned a scholarship to Knoxville College in Tennessee where she studied physics, biology, and chemistry. Many members of the black community in Hot Springs collected change and donations to help send her to college. By 1948, she was admitted to the University of Arkansas Medical School as a part of the first racially-mixed class. She became the first African-American to be accepted in any school in the southern United States. She was featured in magazines such as Time, Life, and Ebony. She married one of her professors, Dr. James B. Jones. She became the first African-American graduate from the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. She also became the first African-American to complete her medical residency in Arkansas.

After graduation, she practiced medicine in Hot Springs for six years before moving to Houston, Texas. Dissatisfied with the segregated staff at the Texas hospital, she moved to Washington, DC to finish her residency. She returned to Houston, opening a clinic in the poorest part of the city while continuing her education at Baylor University and West Virginia University.

Jones served as the second vice-president of the National Medical Association (NMA) in 1964. In 1975, she became the first woman ever to chair the Council on Scientific Assembly for the NMA. She helped found Mercy Hospital in Houston and helped develop the Park Plaza Hospital.

Dr. Jones has received four honorary doctorates for her work in medicine. She was inducted into the Arkansas Women’s Hall of Fame as well as having two international hospital named in her honor. She passed away in 2019. Dr. Jones’ contribution to medicine and women’s inclusion in the medical field have made her a Great American.

Barbara Ross was born in the housing projects in Detroit, Michigan in 1942. Her younger sister, Diana Ross, became an international superstar singer. At the age of 10, young Barbara became interested in medicine when her mother was hospitalized for tuberculosis. Barbara also suffered a near-death complication from a tonsillectomy when she was 16 years old.

In 1960, she entered Wayne State University majoring in biology and chemistry in order to prepare for medical school. Her academic counselor talked her out of this pursuit in favor of a career in teaching. After earning her bachelor degree, Ross-Lee joined the National Teacher’s Corps and taught in the inner city schools of Detroit while she was pursuing her master’s degree. In 1973, Ross-Lee earned her D.O. doctorate degree from Michigan State University in the College of Osteopathic Medicine. She then set up her own private practice in Detroit.

In 1984, Ross-Lee became a health professions consultant on education for the Department of Health and Human Services. In 1990, she became the first D.O. to receive a fellowship from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. In 1993, she became the first-ever African-American woman to be appointed dean of a medical school in the United States. At the same time, she was awarded the “Magnificent 7” Award by Business and Professional Women/USA. She became the dean of the College of Osteopathic Medicine of Ohio University. She held that position until 2001 when she became Vice-President for Health Sciences and Medical Affairs at the New York Institute of Technology.

Ross-Lee continues to work in the field of medical education. She helped start NYITCOM at Arkansas State University, helping spread medical education throughout the country. She has been a trailblazer for increasing diversity in the medical field and encouraging minorities and women to enter the field. Her contributions to medicine and education have made Dr. Ross-Lee a Great American.

Susie Baker was born into slavery on a plantation in Liberty County, Georgia in 1848. When she was seven, she was allowed by her owner to move to Savannah, Georgia to live with her grandmother. She attended two secret black schools taught by black women. It was illegal to educate blacks in Georgia at the time and the punishment, if caught, would be severe. Baker learned to read at the schools and she was also aided by two white children even though they knew the punishment under Georgia Law.

In 1862, Baker fled with other African-Americans to St. Simons Island off the coast of Georgia. The island was occupied by Union forces during the Civil War. The Union soldiers instantly recognized that she was one of the few educated blacks on the island and offered her books and materials to start a school. She became the first black teacher for freed slaves in Georgia.

Before leaving the island, she married Edward King, a black noncommissioned officer in the Union Army. She began travelling with him throughout the war. She helped nurse the wounded and teach black soldiers how to read and write. In Beaumont, South Carolina, she work alongside Clara Barton who would later become the founder of the Red Cross. After the war, she returned to Savannah and established a school for freed children. In 1867, she moved back to Liberty County and created another school. Her husband died shortly before the birth of their first son.

In 1879, she married Russell Taylor and moved to Boston, Massachusetts. She dedicated much of her time to the Woman's Relief Corps, a national organization for female Civil War veterans. In 1893, she became the president of the corps. During the Spanish-American War, she helped furnish packages for wounded men in hospitals. In the 1890's, she wrote "Reminiscences of My Life in Camp with the 33d United States Colored Troops, Late 1st S.C. Volunteers." The book was published in 1902 and described her experiences with colored soldiers during the Civil War. She became the only African-American woman to publish her wartime experiences.

Susie King Taylor sacrificed herself to help treat the wounded during the Civil War and dedicated herself to educating former slaves of the South. She worked tirelessly in the hopes that education would help former slaves escape poverty. Her story is one of a great American.

Vivien Thomas was born in New Iberia, Louisiana in 1910. He was the grandson of a slave. As a young boy, his family moved to Nashville, Tennessee. At an early age, Thomas dreamed of becoming a surgeon. He was inspired by his family doctor as a child. During high school, she saved money he had earned while working as an orderly in an infirmary in order to pay for a medical education. After graduating from high school, Thomas enrolled in the pre-med program at the Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial College in 1929.

After the Great Stock Market Crash of 1929, Thomas was forced to put off college. Instead, he secured a job as an assistant to noted heart doctor Alfred Blalock of Vanderbilt University. On his first day on the job, he helped Dr. Blalock perform experimental surgery on a dog. Blalock was so impressed with Thomas that he invited him to continue working with him. He was classified by the university as a janitor, but he was doing work of a postdoctoral researcher.

Soon, Thomas was allowed to perform surgerys on his own. He became an invaluable assistant to Dr. Blalock’s work. The two men helped design new types of surgical instruments. They did groundbreaking work into research methodology and surgical techniques. Their collaboration helped doctors understand the causes of hemorrhagic and traumatic shock due to blood loss. During World War II, their work helped save the lives of thousands of soldiers on the battlefield. In 1940, Blalock was named Chief of Surgery at Johns Hopkins University. Blalock requested that Thomas accompany him. While at Johns Hopkins, Thomas discovered a surgical solution to a heart anomaly called Tetralogy of Fallot (also known as Blue Baby Syndrome) while experimenting with dogs. He helped guide Blalock through the surgical procedure on a child. In 1945, Blalock and fellow doctor named Taussig received sole credit for their procedure. Thomas received no credit for its development.

Throughout his time at Johns Hopkins, Thomas trained numerous new surgeons. He worked in close partnership with Blalock without being given credit for his contributions. He became known by many of the doctors and students at the one of the finest surgeons on staff despite not having any formal medical training. When Blalock died in 1964, Thomas became the Director of Surgical Research Laboratories. In 1976, Johns Hopkins presented Thomas with an honorary doctorate in law rather than medicine due to legal restrictions.

Today, the “Blalock-Taussig Shunt” has been renamed the “Blalock-Thomas-Taussig Shunt” in honor of his contributions to the procedure. Thomas worked tirelessly behind the scenes during a time when black doctors were restricted from medical research. Today, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is divided into four colleges, one of which is named in his honor. His story was published in The Washingtonian which won the 1990 National Magazine Award. His life story was featured on PBS’s American Experience. In 2004, HBO made a film titled, “Something the Lord Made” about his life story. In 1993, the Vivien Thomas Scholarship for Medical Science and Research was established. Dr. Thomas died in 1985, but his contributions to medicine have saved countless lives throughout the world. His selfless devotion to medicine made Dr. Thomas a Great American.

Daniel Hale Williams was born in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania in 1856. His father, a barber, moved the family to Annapolis, Maryland early in Daniel’s childhood. However, soon after moving there, Daniel’s father died of tuberculosis. His mother could not manage the seven children in the family, so she sent several of them away to live with relatives. Daniel moved to Baltimore to apprentice as a shoemaker, but soon ran away to live with his mother who had moved to Rockford, Illinois. Soon after, Daniel opened his own barber shop in Wisconsin. He became fascinated with the work of a local doctor there and decided to go into medicine.

For two years, Williams apprenticed under Dr. Henry Palmer. At the time, most doctors only used the education of an apprenticeship as their education to go into medicine. Williams decided to go further by enrolling into Chicago Medical College (now known as Northwestern University). After graduating, he started his own medical office in Chicago.

Dr. Williams started implementing the new sterilization practices in his work. It earned him a great reputation, however, it did not get him a position in any hospitals as a surgeon because of the color of his skin. Therefore, Williams started the Provident Hospital and training school for nurses. It was the first black-owned hospital in the United States.

On July 9, 1893, a young black man was admitted to the hospital with a stab wound in the chest and losing a lot of blood. Dr. Williams decided to do internal surgery despite the fact that the procedure was almost unheard of at the time. Dr. Williams discovered that his pericardium, the sac around the heart, had been damaged. He sutured it up and the young man made a full recovery. It was only the second successful heart surgery in the world. Dr. Williams gained great notoriety for his accomplishment.

Later that year, Dr. Williams was appointed by President Grover Cleveland as the surgeon-in-chief of the Freedman’s Hospital in Washington, DC. He later returned to Chicago to work on his school for nurses. He helped establish the National Medical Association for African-American doctors. In 1913, he became the only African-American charter member of the American College of Surgeons.

Dr. Williams is one of the great doctors of American history. His contributions to the advancement of medicine, education, and advancement of African-American doctors helped people throughout the country. Dr. Williams accomplishments made him a great American.

Jane Wright was born in 1919 in Manhattan. Her father, Dr. Louis T. Wright, was one of the first African-American graduates from Harvard Medical School. As a child, she attended the prestigious Ethical Culture Fieldston School in New York City. The school is a member of the Ivy Preparatory School League. She graduated high school in 1938 and went on to earn a bachelor’s degree from Smith College in Massachusetts. Afterward, she attended the New York Medical College on a scholarship and earned her M.D. in 1945.

After medical school, she did her residency at two hospitals in New York City. In 1949, she joined her father at the Harlem Hospital Cancer Research Center, and institution that he founded. When her father died in 1952, she became the new director. In 1955, she took a research appointment at New York University as the Director of Cancer Research. In this position, she was able to do research on numerous drugs and their effects on tumors. She was the first to identify methotrexate as an effective drug on cancerous tumors. Her groundbreaking work allowed chemotherapy, which was previously untested and seen as a last resort, to become an effective method of treating cancer. Her research into folic acid helped in the treatment of Hodgkin’s disease, melanoma, lymphosarcoma, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and leukemia. She wrote numerous papers and received nearly 30 patents for drugs that helped with chemotherapy.

In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed her to the President’s Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer and Stroke. She served on the National Cancer Advisory Board in the late 1960s. In 1964, she and six other doctors founded the American Society of Clinical Oncology. By the end of the decade, she was the highest ranking black woman among all medical institutes in the United States. In 1971, she was the first woman elected president of the New York Cancer Society. Throughout her career, she travelled to Africa, the Soviet Union, China and Eastern Europe. In 1985, she retired and was appointed emerita professor at New York Medical College.

Dr. Wright passed away in 2013. She has numerous awards named in her honor. Her work in chemotherapy was revolutionary while breaking both racial and gender barriers in the medical field. Dr. Wright was truly a Great American.