According to Piller (2016), linguistic repertoires become markers/indicators of inclusion or exclusion, and legitimacy or illegitimacy. In other words, linguistic repertoires can be used to create differences and social stratification.
Other markers of social stratification (for example, class, gender, race) may be more obvious, but language is frequently used to maintain inequality between dominant and subordinated speakers – to produce and re-produce discrimination, in other words.
One domain where this is noticeable is the workplace. Below are three example themes of multilingual issues in the workplace for you to explore and use to start getting ideas for your research.
(1) Look at the following headline from a newspaper in Australia (Herald Sun, September 26, 2016). What assumptions does the headline make about employment barriers for migrants?
(2) The above headline claims that language proficiency is one of the biggest challenges that migrants face in seeking employment. The headline suggests that any problem to do with employment that migrant workers face is their problem. The headline obscures the fact there is systematic discrimination within labour markets and employment structures and systems.
(3) While it is widely assumed that lack of proficiency in the language of the destination country constitutes the main barrier migrants face in finding work, there is plenty of evidence to help us question this assumption.
(4) In 2008 557 adult Iraqi army translators and interpreters (and family members) were resettled in Australia.
(5) In 2011 233 were surveyed, of whom 135 had tertiary education. After three years, only 9 were in full-time employment, with just one of the 9 working in interpreting and translation.
(6) According to Piller (2016), such a low employment rate is typical for most newly arrived migrants in Australia.
(7) One conclusion from this kind of research is that there is no simple direct relationship between language proficiency and employment.
(1) Research into the success rate of job applications in Australia, Germany and other countries has shown that employers discriminate according to the name of the applicant.
(2) In one study response 5,000 fictitious (= made up) CVs and job applications were sent in response to job (real) job ads for “entry-level” positions, i.e., unskilled jobs such as restaurant waiting, entering data, customer service, and sales.
(3) All the applications showed that the 5,000 fictitious applicants had each completed high school in Australia.
(4) The one difference in the applications was that the fictitious applicants were given different names:
Anglo-Saxon names (like John Thomson, Mary Jones, David Miller)
Chinese names
Indigenous names
Italian names
and Middle Eastern names.
(5) Of the job applicants, who was contacted and invited for interview? Why? Read the article here to find out whether your assumptions are accurate or not!
(6) Nearly 100 years ago an American linguist noted that European immigrants to America were likely to give up their original names and take on more Anglo-Saxon sounding names, thus “Americanizing” their names. This linguist wrote:
“A Greek named Zoyiopoulous, Kolokotronis, Mavrokerdatos or Constantinopoulos would find it practically impossible to carry on amicable business with Americans; his name would arouse their mirth (= amused reaction, with an edge of scorn), if not their downright ire (= anger)… But more important than this purely linguistic hostility, there is a deeper social enmity (= a feeling of hostility), and it urges the immigrant to change his name with even greater force …
For a hundred years past all the heaviest and most degrading labor of the United States has been done by successive armies of foreigners, and so a concept of inferiority has come to be attached to mere foreignness. …. In addition, these newcomers, pressing upward steadily… have offered the native a formidable, and…what has appeared to him unfair competition in his own plane (= area of activity and life), and as a result a hatred born of disastrous rivalry has been added to his disdain.” (Mencken, 1919)
(7) According to Piller (2016, p. 68 & p. 73), changing names to sound like the majority leads to better application success, better jobs and higher earnings. Linguistic markers of ethnicity matter, and even more so when they intersect (= cut across and connect) with race, country of origin, gender, education, and so on).
(8) What connections do you see between this theme and the stereotyping of migrants in Japan?
(1) Discussion
What arguments can you make FOR using only one language only in the workplace?
What arguments can you make AGAINST using only one language only in the workplace?
(2) Example approach (New Zealand)
Question from an employee: Can my employer say that only English is allowed to be spoken in our workplace?
The right to use one’s own language is an internationally recognised human right, which is mentioned in a range of human rights treaties and declarations. Under the Human Rights Act in New Zealand (1993, amended 2001), it is unlawful for an employer to treat an employee less favourably because of their ethnicity or national origin. Someone’s first language is usually related to their ethnicity so if an employer tries to stop someone from using their first language, that may be discrimination.
However, English is the most widely used language in New Zealand and people have very different responses to the use of languages other than English in the workplace.
It would be hard for an employer to justify a total “English only” policy when the reason for that was to create “workplace harmony” or because it was part of “company culture”. But the policy could be appropriate if an employer has a valid reason for it – health and safety reasons would be the most likely.
However, employees should have the freedom to speak other languages during breaks, or before or after work. (New Zealand Human Rights Commission, no date, a)
(3) The New Zealand Human Rights Commission has published an information sheet on this issue called ‘English language only’ policies in the workplace'. The information sheet explains:
“… The Commission seeks to resolve these complaints by bringing the employer and employee together to discuss the issues.
Through this mediation process, we encourage the parties to discuss the reasons for the policy, whether those reasons are appropriate for the particular workplace, and if there are alternatives that could be considered… Our approach is to encourage employers and employees to have a conversation and develop a solution that is appropriate for their workplace.
Some issues employers and employees might consider are that:
* increasingly the first language of potential employees and customers will not be English
* asking people not to speak their language of choice can affect their sense of identity and culture
* good communication is necessary in order to work safely and productively,
* and a shared language is an important factor in making this happen.
By taking into account a range of perspectives it is more likely that a policy around language in the workplace will be understood and accepted by everyone …
Research shows that workplaces that positively address issues of diversity are more likely to have increased staff morale, reduced staff turnover and improved workplace productivity (New Zealand Human Rights Commission … “ (no date, b).
(4) What is your critical evaluation of the New Zealand information sheet advice?
References
Balfour, C., & David, R. (September 26, 2016). Language, lack of Australian experience the biggest hurdles for migrant job seekers. Herald Sun. Retrieved from https://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/special-features/5000-jobs/language-lack-of-australian-experience-the-biggest-hurdles-for-migrant-job-seekers/news-story/a932e4753fa44bdd6642a87978fbd6ac
BBC (6 February, 2017). Is it easier to get a job if you’re Adam or Mohamed? Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-38751307
Gerdeman D. (17 May 2017). Minorities who 'whiten' job resumes get more interviews. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge. Retrieved from https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/minorities-who-whiten-job-resumes-get-more-interviews
Mencken, H. (1916). The American language. New York, NY: Knopf.
New Zealand Human Rights Commission (no date, a). English only in the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.hrc.co.nz/enquiries-and-complaints/faqs/english-language-only-workplace/
New Zealand Human Rights Commission (no date, b). ‘English language only’ policies in the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.hrc.co.nz/files/5314/2371/0767/26-Nov-2008_19-38-27_English_Only_in_the_Workplace_1_.pdf
Piller, I. (2016). Linguistic diversity and social justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The Local (8 September 2017). German job centres discriminate against people with foreign-sounding names: study. Retrieved from https://www.thelocal.de/20170908/german-job-centres-discriminate-against-people-with-foreign-sounding-names-report
Weber, J-J., & Horner, K. (2018) (2nd edition). Introducing multilingualism: A social approach. London: Routledge.