Originally an actor, Ronald Reagan gained a following after he proved to be an effective speaker during the Goldwater campaign. This popularity got him elected governor of California, and eventually a nomination for president in 1980.

During his campaign, Reagan attacked Democrats for expanding government and undermining America’s position on the world stage. He frequently mentioned the Iranian Hostage Crisis and the “misery index”, asking the public to consider if they had fared well under Carter’s administration. These tactics caused a shift in the Republican party to include more blue-collar workers and won him the election, making him the nation’s 40th president. It also secured a Republican majority in the Senate, and a working majority (with conservative Southern Democrats) in the House. 

At the beginning of his term, Reagan saw the Iranian hostages released and survived an assassination attempt, making him popular with the American people. His campaign focused on reducing the size and scope of the federal government. Once in office, he pledged to lower taxes, reduce government spending on welfare, build up the armed forces, and create a more conservative federal court. 

Reagan’s administration advocated for supply-side economics (which was renamed “Reaganomics”), claiming that tax cuts and reduced government spending would allow for increased investment in the private sector, which would therefore increase production, jobs, wages, and prosperity. This was a direct opponent of Keynesian economics, which Democrats had been using since the Depression by increasing government spending. Critics of Reaganomics refer to it as “trickle-down economics”, in which the wealthy remained powerful and prosperous but the middle and lower class saw little benefit.  

• Cut $40 billion from domestic programs (including funding for food stamps, mass transportation, and student loans)

• Increased military spending

• No cuts to Medicare & Social Security

• Strengthened Social Security - increased the amount paid in and the age in which benefits were received, taxed benefits of upper-income recipients

• Deregulated business & industry - relaxed restrictions put in place for consumer safety & environmental protection

• Opened federal lands for oil, coal, and timber production

• Attacked unions

• Recession hit in 1982, recovered in 1983 but widened the gap between the rich and poor

• Added Sandra Day O’Connor, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, and William Rehnquist making the Supreme Court more conservative; did not overturn but did scale back on affirmative action and allowed states to set abortion limitations

Reagan entered his incumbent presidential race popular, especially since the economy was bouncing back after a recession. Running on an optimistic campaign, he won in a landslide. Only two groups of voters favored the Democratic candidates - African-Americans and the poor. 

Reagan’s tax cuts and increased defense spending were creating larger federal deficits, going from 1.5% of the GDP in 1979 to 4.8% in 1986. During his two terms, Reagan tripled the national debt, and his economic policies did not have the desired effect. Instead of money trickling down to middle and lower-class Americans, investments were being spent on foreign goods, resulting in a trade deficit. Reagan worked with Congress to pass bills to increase taxes and help chip away at the deficit, reducing it to 2.9% by 1988. 

Reagan left office one of the most popular presidents. His time had challenged traditional values of both major parties, scared away opportunities for new social programs, shut down many avenues for aid to Americans in need while increasing the wealth (and power) of higher-income Americans, and altered the focus of future presidents to be on the national debt. 

One of the cornerstones of Reagan’s presidency was an increase in defense spending, expanding the size and power of the American armed forces. In addition to creating new weapons and commissioning new ships, the Reagan administration increased spending on the Strategic Defense Initiative, all justified as means of aiding anti-communist forces abroad. Under Reagan, the United States provided military and/or economic aid to support opponents of communism in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Grenada. Some interventions were strictly to prevent the spread of communism, while others were to prevent enemy bases from being built too close for comfort. 

The Iran-Contra Affair was a complex scandal that unfolded during the Reagan administration in the 1980s involving secret activities conducted by members of the United States government, including the National Security Council, to circumvent congressional restrictions and pursue controversial foreign policy objectives.

The secret arms sales to Iran were part of a covert operation aimed at securing the release of American hostages held in Lebanon by Hezbollah (militant group with ties to Iran).This action contradicted Reagan's public stance on negotiating with terrorists and raised questions about the legality/morality of the administration's actions. It also raised questions about the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches, particularly the extent to which the president could engage in foreign policy initiatives without congressional approval.

Washington warned future presidents that allegiance to the two-party system would bring only division and discontent. As the 20th century came to an end, this warning came true. By the 1980s and 90s, the nation was divided between the conservative South, Great Plains, and Mountain states, and the more moderate-to-liberal Northeast and West Coast. Rural areas voted Republican, while cities voted Democrat. Swing states like Ohio and Florida dominated presidential elections. 

Both parties used gerrymandering to manipulate congressional districts to guarantee wins, discouraging compromise in Congress and further encouraging division along party lines. Both parties traded victories in the White House and Congress, using whatever power they could to push through their policies while blocking those of their opponent. 

In addition to growing dispute over the economy, issues related to race, gender, and religion became central to political discourse, further dividing the electorate along demographic lines. Debates over social and cultural issues such as abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, gun control, healthcare, equal rights, and immigration became increasingly polarized during this period. Both parties staked out firm positions on these issues, leading to deep divisions among the electorate. 

This was exacerbated by the media, especially when the fairness doctrine (requiring broadcasters to report the news in an honest and equitable way) was abolished. Income inequality and the dominance of Wall Street in the American economy brought many to see elections as a fight between classes. The issue of healthcare coverage for all Americans had long been discussed, but the idea of government-provided healthcare had been branded “socialism” by Republicans and thus tarnished in the eyes of the public.

As Reagan’s vice-president, George H.W. Bush was an easy choice for the Republicans in the election of 1988. While he did not have the charm and popularity of Reagan, he challenged his opponent (Democrat Michael Dukakis) by claiming Democrats were soft on crime and favored policies which weakened America politically and economically. He had also served in Congress, an ambassador for the United Nations, an envoy to China, and head of the CIA. Bush won over conservatives who doubted his commitment to their cause by promising to not raise taxes. 

Although Bush secured a decisive victory to become the 41st president, Democrats had taken back control of the House and Senate, making it difficult for conservatives to get anything passed under the Bush administration. 

• Bush nominated Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court as a replacement for the retiring Thurgood Marshall. This appointment was controversial, because Thomas had a conservative judicial philosophy and opposed government efforts to combat racism (despite being African-American), while also being charged with sexual harassment. 

• As the national debt and federal deficit increased, Bush had no choice but to betray his campaign promise and institute new taxes, increasing the top income tax rate to 31% and raising federal taxes on luxury items (beer, wine, cigarettes, gas, cars, etc.)

• Recession starting in 1990

• Oversaw the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) which prohibited discrimination against citizens with mental and physical disabilities in hiring, transportation, and public accommodations.

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union, and sought to reform the communist system to address the needs of his citizens and bring the nation into the modern era. He also hoped his ideas could bring an end to the Cold War. 

• Glasnost: “openness”; end to political oppression & allow for more political freedom among Soviet citizens

• Perestroika: restructuring the economy by introducing some free-market practices

Gorbachev also wanted to decrease military defense spending, but Soviet conservatives fought him, especially since they knew Reagan was continuing to expand the American military. Reagan and Gorbachev met multiple times to discuss the reduction of arms, finally agreeing to remove and destroy all intermediate-range missiles (INF Agreement). Gorbachev also began pulling troops out of Afghanistan, while joining the US by putting pressure on Iran and Iraq to end their war. 

The crowning achievement of Bush’s presidency was overseeing the end of the Cold War. The following events contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union:

• Tiananmen Square Incident: A group of protesters (mostly students and intellectuals) advocating for a more democratic style of government in Beijing were attacked by the Chinese Communist Party, killing hundreds and establishing authoritarian one-party rule in China. 

• In eastern Europe, free elections removed communists from power one by one.

• Protesters tore down the Berlin Wall in 1989, followed by the official reunification of Germany in October of 1990 (considered the symbolic end of the Cold War). 

• Soviet republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared independence, and the remaining republics dissolved. 

• Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, joined with former Soviet republics to form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Together they ended the Communist Party in Russia and attempted to establish a democracy with a free-market economy. 

• The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (I & II) were agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia to reduce the number of nuclear weapons in each other’s arsenal, thus minimizing the chances for global devastation should the Cold War ever “heat up”. START I (1991) reduced the number of nuclear warheads to under 10,000 for each side. START II (1992) reduced this further to 3,000, while offering economic assistance to Russia following the fall of the Soviet Union.  The negotiation and implementation of START I and II demonstrated the willingness of the United States and Russia to engage in arms control agreements despite their ideological differences, symbolizing a commitment to diplomacy and cooperation and setting a precedent for future arms control efforts.

While the world celebrated the fall of the Berlin Wall as the end of the Cold War, President Bush remained cautious. The breakdown of the former Soviet states meant continued instability in the region, as evidenced by the civil war in Bosnia & Herzegovina in 1992 and in Chechnya in 1999. Additionally, the new Russia was weak, economically and politically, while harboring resentment for the admittance of their former Soviet states into NATO. 

The former Yugoslavia was under the reign of Serbian dictator Slobodan Milosevic, who violently suppressed independence movements and increased hostilities between the already tense religious rivalries in the region. This led to an “ethnic cleansing” which killed thousands, until NATO got involved. Russia’s support of Serbia in this conflict further challenged their relationship with the United States. 

Upon inauguration, Bush planned for a “new world order” based on peace and democracy, but this was challenged by Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. The dictator of Iraq had threatened the world’s oil supply, so Bush built a coalition of UN members to pressure Hussein into withdrawing his forces. Soldiers from all members of the coalition joined together in the military operation known as Desert Storm, quickly defeating the Iraqi army (though Hussein remained in power as dictator). The speed and ease of the mission’s success was largely due to dedication to a single goal - the liberation of Kuwait. 

Following the war, the presence of coalition forces in the region contributed to long-term tensions and resentment among some segments of the population. Additionally, unresolved issues between Iraq and the international community laid the groundwork for future conflicts and instability in the region.

In the election of 1992, Bush was running for his second-term, but had lost touch with the American people. The Democrats nominated Bill Clinton, the governor of Arkansas, as a “New Democrat” that focused on economic issues. While he was challenged by a third party candidate, Ross Perot, Clinton won and became the nation’s 42nd president.

Once in office, Clinton and his administration were blocked by Senate Republicans at every turn, preventing anything from being passed. Despite their resistance, some important reforms were put into law:

• Family & Medical Leave Act (FMLA): allowed employees to take medical leave from work without pay but also without the risk of losing their employment

• Brady Bill: mandated a five-day waiting period for the purchase of handguns

• Anti-Crime Bill: additional funding for police protection and crime-prevention programs; banned the sale of most assault rifles → contested by the NRA

Unfortunately, the reforms and economic prosperity seen under the Clinton administration were overshadowed by scandal and the impeachment that followed it. This tarnished the reputation of the Democratic Party for years. 

The increase in taxes and challenge to gun ownership under Democrats lost them favor. In the midterm elections, Republicans regained control of both the House and Senate. Under the leadership of Newt Gingrich, Speaker of the House, the “Republican Revolution” or “Revolution of ‘94” promoted policy changes as part of their “Contract with America”.

After much deliberation, Clinton and Congress managed to come to a compromise which left Social Security and Medicare intact, limited welfare benefits, increased minimum wage, set restrictions on immigration, and created a balanced budget. These measures led to a federal surplus, and continued debate on how to use it to the benefit of American citizens. Clinton managed to set aside some for Social Security, Medicare, and reducing the national debt, and Republicans pushed through tax cuts. 

Much of the economic boom in the 1990s was due to the various technological innovations developed during the time:

• Internet

• Personal computers

• Software

• Wireless mobile communications

• e-commerce

• Digital photography

• GPS

• DNA testing & sequencing

• MRIs

• Robotics

• Laser technology for medical use

• Improvements in medicine and increased understanding of pathology

Access to technology and improved communication systems connected the world like never before. In Thomas Friedman’s book The World is Flat, he argued that the advances and innovations developed during this period linked people all over the world, creating new wealth in the developing world and “flattening” the competition around the globe. In other words, technology leveled the playing field. 

American businesses had become proficient at cutting costs, increasing their profitability, and reaping the benefits of their investments. Standards of living increased while unemployment rates decreased, and the technology boom allowed for the United States to remain a strong competitor in the new global economy. 

• NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement): a trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, established in 1994, with the aim of eliminating barriers to trade and investment, including tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions. NAFTA contributed to globalization by promoting trade integration, supply chain development, foreign direct investment, and regional economic growth. 

• WTO (World Trade Organization): an international organization established in 1995 to serve as a forum for negotiating trade agreements, settling disputes, and monitoring trade policies. The WTO contributed to globalization by promoting multilateral trade liberalization, ensuring non-discrimination practices, settling disputes and providing assistance to developing countries. 

• IMF (International Monetary Fund): an international financial institution established in 1944 with the goal of promoting global monetary cooperation, exchange rate stability, and balanced economic growth. The IMF contributed to globalization by providing financial assistance to countries with unstable economies, conducting economic surveillance, providing policy advice, and preventing economic crises by monitoring the global market. 

• World Bank: an international financial institution established in 1944 with a focus on providing financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development projects and programs

• G8 (Group of Eight): an informal forum of eight of the world's leading industrialized democracies (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States), established in 1975. While it was primarily a political forum, the G8 also addressed economic issues and contributed to globalization by coordinating economic policies, promoting international trade and investment, and addressing global security challenges. 

On the positive side, the 90s gave many Americans opportunities they didn’t previously have. More citizens were living above the poverty line and owned homes. Technological advancements allowed for increased productivity and record highs in the stock market.

Unfortunately, the wealth was not evenly distributed, with the wealthiest 1% of the population owning 35% of the nation’s wealth. (The top 10% owned 50%.) Between periods of recession and inflation, the wealthiest 1% of Americans increased their possession of the national wealth to 43% by the late 2010s. Meanwhile, 62% of single-parent households lived paycheck to paycheck, without savings or other financial assets to fall back on. Technological advancements also displaced job opportunities, as many industries outsourced their production. 

In the closest race since 1876, vice-president Al Gore battled Texas governor (and son of former president) George W. Bush for the presidency. While Al Gore won the popular vote, victory depended on results from Florida. Democrats requested manual recounts, as the punch cards were prone to errors, and the Supreme Court of Florida obliged. Then the Bush campaign challenged the decision, and in the case of Bush v. Gore, the Supreme Court voted along party lines and ruled in favor of Bush, making him the 43rd president (with only 5 more electoral votes than Gore). Green Party candidate Ralph Nader came in a distant third, but potentially lost Gore the votes needed to win, making Americans cautious of future third party candidates. 

Having no foreign policy experience, Bush established a cabinet of experienced politicians to advise him on foreign affairs, including Dick Cheney and General Colin Powell. Regardless of their experience, the Bush administration was challenged by history of tension and resentment with the nations of the Middle East:

• The break-up of the Ottoman Empire after WWI as orchestrated by the Treaty of Versailles fueled resentment for western nations

• Many Arab nations did not approve of the US siding with Israel

• Continued presence of American troops in the Middle East fostered support for religious extremist groups like Al-Qaeda to wage a “holy war”

• Economic instability

• Civil unrest and restrictive political conditions

• Acts of “asymmetric” warfare → terrorism

• 1993 - bombing of the World Trade Center

• 1998 - bombing of US embassies in Kenya & Tanzania

• 2000 - suicide bombers almost sank the warship USS Cole

In 1993, an Islamic terrorist group called al Qaeda exploded a truck bomb in the parking garage beneath the World Trade Center in New York City, killing six people and injuring over a thousand others. This group, led by Osama bin Laden, had a series of other attacks on American embassies, but remained largely unnoticed by the general public.

On September 11th, 2001, 19 al Qaeda operatives hijacked four different commercial flights in the United States, altering their course to hit major American institutions. The first plane slammed into the north tower of the World Trade, followed by a second in the south tower less than an hour later. The two towers soon collapsed. A third plane crashed into the Pentagon, while the fourth was brought down by passengers, crashing in a field in Pennsylvania. That same day, it was confirmed that al Qaeda was responsible for these attacks which killed nearly 3,000 people. 

Although shaken by these attacks, Americans rallied to defend their nation, rushing to donate money, food, supplies, services, and their own blood. Patriotism swept the nation, as many planted flags in their yards or even enlisted in the armed services. Airport security was given a drastic overhaul, while businesses and households entered a period of uncertainty, limiting spending and hurting the national economy. Years later, memorials were erected so that Americans would "never forget".

Much like the attack on Pearl Harbor, the American public demanded revenge for the 9/11 attacks, and President Bush took a strong stance against terrorism, declaring that he wanted bin Laden and other Al-Qaeda leaders “dead or alive”. The Taliban refused to turn them over, so the US responded in the form of bombings and special forces operations to overthrow the Taliban. Once that was accomplished, they continued the hunt for Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. Instability in the region before, during and after the capture of bin Laden lead to an increased American presence in the Middle East, only igniting further resentment and tension. 

The Bush administration was inconsistent in their dealings with other nations. On the one hand, they worked to expand NATO and the European Union (EU), supported the admission of China into the World Trade Organization, and brokered conflicts between India and Pakistan. On the other, the refused to join the Kyoto Accord (measures to combat climate change and protect the environment), walked out on the UN conference on racism, abandoned an anti-ballistic missile treaty with Russia, and refused to negotiate with North Korea or Iran. Critics questioned this unilateral approach (not valuing cooperation), but Bush declared that the old ways of dealing with foreign nations were no longer effective in a world overrun by terrorists. 

The Bush Doctrine outlined a proactive and assertive approach to national security and international relations, emphasizing preemption, unilateralism, and the promotion of democracy. 

Amid the chaos and heartbreak of the 9/11 attacks was the stark reality that the US had minimal security measures in place, which allowed for the terrorists to fulfill their plans. In response, the Bush administration expanded the federal government’s power for the sake of national security:

• USA Patriot Act (2001): gave the US power to expand surveillance and obtain information about their citizens

  • Some citizens protested the compromise of freedoms, troubled by wiretapping and recordings of phone calls, emails, and text messages, etc.

• Creation of the Department of Homeland Security → bringing together various government agencies to better monitor the nation and protect it from future acts of terrorism

• Congress created a new position to coordinate information and improve communication among intelligence agencies → director of national intelligence

Operation Iraqi Freedom was a military campaign launched by the United States and its coalition allies in March 2003 with the objective of removing Saddam Hussein's regime from power in Iraq. The operation was preceded by a buildup of tensions and a series of events that ultimately led to military intervention.

• Causes:

  • Bush’s designation of the “axis of evil” (North Korea, Iraq, & Iran) & declaration that Saddam Hussein was involved with 9/11

  • Noncompliance of Iraq with UN resolutions

  • Fears over Iraq’s potential ownership of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

• Effects:

  • International forces successfully capture the capital of Baghdad and end Hussein’s dictatorship

  • Criticism over the Bush administration for a “war of choice” when no WMDs were discovered

  • Continued violence & new groups of insurgents

  • Refugees displaced

  • Tarnished American reputation

Other actions under Bush:

• Tax Cuts: aimed to stimulate economic growth, incentivize investment, and provide relief to taxpayers but increased the national debt

• No Child Left Behind: education reform designed to improve student achievement and accountability in the U.S. public education system by setting rigorous academic standards, implementing standardized testing, and holding schools accountable for student performance

• Economic Bubble: the economic growth fueled by technology and conservative tax policies was accompanied by the formation of economic bubbles, particularly in the housing market → stock market crashed, unemployment and poverty rates increased

• Hurricane Katrina: In August 2005, the Gulf coast was struck by a category 5 hurricane, destroying the coastal regions of LA, MS, and AL, while displacing thousands of American citizens. Bush was criticized for failing to prepare and respond appropriately to the natural disaster.

• Great Recession: Critics argue that lax regulation of the financial industry under Bush, including deregulation measures, contributed to the conditions that led to the housing bubble and subsequent financial crisis

Democrats had faced challenges after Clinton’s scandal, but dislike for Bush’s policies gave them an opening in the election of 2008. After a contentious primary, they nominated Barack Obama as their candidate. Republicans chose Vietnam war veteran and Arizona senator John McCain. 

Obama’s charisma, campaign strategy targeting younger voters, positive message for change, opposition to the Iraq war, the unstable economy, and a general dislike for the war-mongering of Republicans gave Obama a decisive victory. The 44th president was the first African-American to hold the office. Democrats increased their majorities in Congress, just as the nation was faced with the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression. 

During the election, Obama appealed to minority voters. Once in office, he looked to these minority groups to create a diverse cabinet. For two terms, the Obama administration worked to reform healthcare, remove American troops from the Middle East, and change practices at Wall Street to alleviate the financial crisis. 

Faced with an economic crisis at the beginning of his presidency, Obama and the Democrats fell back on Keynesian economics to avoid a greater depression and promote recovery. The American Recovery & Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in 2009 provided a stimulus package to create and/or save jobs, stimulate spending through tax cuts, and help financially support local and state governments so they could continue providing public services. The Federal Reserve lowered interest rates and added $600 billion into the banking system. The government rescued automobile manufacturers from bankruptcy by taking over companies and offering incentives to trade in old cars for newer models.

The Great Recession revealed flaws in and oversights of financial institutions, so further legislation was enacted to regulate businesses and prevent future economic disasters. The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform & Consumer Protection Act (2010) was designed to protect taxpayers from future bailouts by regulating banking and investment firms. It lead to the creation of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) to regulate mortgages and credit cards. By 2016, unemployment rates had fallen, the stock market was up, and relief was supplied to consumers, leading a path to (an albeit slow) recovery. 

Obama campaigned on the promise of ending the unilateral approach imposed by the Bush Doctrine and working to improve America’s relationship with foreign nations. 

• Withdrew troops from Iraq by the end of 2011, effectively ending the Iraq War

• Authorized an increase of U.S. troops in Afghanistan, increasing the American military presence to stabilize the country & combat the Taliban

• Authorized Operation Neptune Spear → raid on Osama bin Laden’s hideout that ended in the terrorist’s death

• Expressed support for pro-democracy movements across the Middle East and North Africa during the Arab Spring

• Authorized airstrikes and deployment of military advisers to fight against ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq & Syria) 

• Pursued diplomatic efforts to address concerns over Iran's nuclear program, leading to the implementation of an agreement aimed to limit Iran's nuclear capabilities 

• Aimed to strengthen alliances, enhance security cooperation, and promote economic engagement in Asia

• Attempted to improve relations with Russia through a "reset" policy, but Russia’s actions in Crimea and Ukraine, as well as their potential tampering with election results, halted such negotiations

• Initiated diplomatic talks with Cuba and took steps to normalize relations after decades of hostility

The Obama administration used the stimulus bill to make improvements in  health care, education, and renewable energy. 

• Emphasized decreasing reliance on oil and promotion of alternative energy like wind and solar power

• Encouraged automobile manufacturers to develop hybrid and electric cars

• Joined the Paris Agreement to reduce global carbon emissions → many in Congress disagreed with the science behind climate change and opposed regulation of greenhouse gas emissions

• Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) replaced No Child Left Behind to reduce testing but increase development of common core curriculum with considerations for local and state governments

• Cut out private banks from federal college-loan program

• The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (nicknamed “Obamacare”) passed in 2010 aimed to provide medical insurance and regulate healthcare costs

• Banned torture as means of interrogation

• Expanded stem cell research

• Strengthened protection of equal pay for female employees

• Attempted to close the prison at Guantanamo Bay but did not have the needed Congressional support to make it happen

Many libertarian and conservative citizens who opposed government spending came together to form the Tea Party. Members differed in their focus, some dedicated to minimizing the national debt and healthcare expansion, while others focused expanding gun rights, outlawing abortions, and restricting immigration. 

Obama faced criticism for his policies and a slow recovery to the Great Recession during his reelection campaign. Republicans chose Mitt Romney after a long battle for the nomination. Although they lost the presidential election, they did maintain their majority in the House. Obama was reelected and Democrats kept the Senate, though it was lost after the 2014 election. The division put the government in a gridlock. 

Between arguments over government spending, immigration, healthcare, and overall dislike for the Obama administration allowed for a new type of presidential candidate. Real estate mogul and reality show host Donald Trump surprised the nation by becoming the Republican nominee, gathering support by taking a hard stance on immigration, fueling feelings of patriotism, and pledging to “drain the swamp” (remove career politicians from power). Democrats chose Secretary of State and former first lady Hillary Clinton, who promised to build on the work of Obama. After a contentious race, Trump secured the pivotal swing states to become the 45th president. 

As evidenced by the 2016 election, many Americans adopted an anti-immigrant sentiment, advocating for more restrictions, tighter borders, and even the construction of a wall along the border with Mexico. Donald Trump made this policy of the key points of his campaign, promising to be tougher on both legal and illegal immigration, end the DACA program, limit “green cards” and exceptions for those seeking asylum, and build the wall his supporters chanted for (at Mexico’s expense). 

This position discouraged many immigrants from coming to the United States and ended the American reputation of being a nation created for and built by immigrants. 

Once in office, Trump wasted no time in pushing for major changes, emphasizing tax cuts, trade protections, restrict immigration, and the deregulation of the private sector. With the Republicans in control of the White House and Congress, they rolled back much of Obama’s work, particularly in the areas of healthcare, environmental protection, and financial regulation. Despite carrying the votes of the working-class, the initiatives under the Trump administration only benefited the wealthy. 

Regardless, Republicans saw him as their champion, as he added more conservative members to the Supreme Court, lowered unemployment while boosting the stock market, and oversaw steady business growth. 

With his “America First” policy, Trump made challenging foreign policy decisions that threatened America’s reputation and credibility. He removed the US from the Paris Agreement, the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty with Russia, the Trans-Pacific Partnership, the six-nation agreement to restrict development of nuclear arms in Iran, the UN Human Rights Council, and UNESCO. He threatened to remove the US from the World Health Organization, the World Trade Organization, and NATO. He placed tariffs on China with mixed results. Although he ordered the assassination of an Iranian general, he also brokered Arab-Israel peace agreements with other Middle Eastern countries. 

At home, Trump faced criticism for inciting violence and division, failing to handle the coronavirus pandemic, and tampering with the election. Trump faced impeachment twice, once for abuse of power related to Ukraine and once for incitement of insurrection following the Capitol riot of January 6, 2021.

In January 2020, the world was faced with a new pandemic - coronavirus or Covid-19. A variant of SARS, this respiratory illness quickly infected the globe, causing whole countries to shut down. People were encouraged to work from home, schools moved to online learning, and all public places required masks to be worn. It took over a year to develop and distribute a vaccine, and there was a great deal of pushback against its use, but slowly the world was able to return to life as normal. Even as cases decrease, many lasting changes have been made to daily life. More people work and attend school remotely, most medical practices require the use of masks in waiting rooms, and people are more cognizant of the steps needed to prevent the spread of illness. 

Biden's time in office included:

• Prioritizing the COVID-19 pandemic, achieving its early goal of administering 100 million vaccinations within the first 100 days

• The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, a $1.9 trillion stimulus package, provided direct payments to Americans, extended unemployment benefits, and funded vaccine distribution.

• The appointment of Ketanji Brown Jackson to the Supreme Court, marking the first time a Black woman served on the court. 

• Overseeing the complete withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan, ending a 20-year military engagement. 

  • The rapid collapse of the Afghan government and the Taliban's return to power drew bipartisan criticism.

• In response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, the Biden administration imposed sanctions on Russia and provided Ukraine with over $100 billion in military, economic, and humanitarian aid.

• During the Israel-Hamas war, Biden condemned Hamas's actions as terrorism, supported Israel's military efforts, and facilitated humanitarian aid to Gaza.

Donald Trump announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination on November 15, 2022, selecting Senator JD Vance of Ohio as his running mate, and they were officially nominated at the Republican National Convention.

President Joe Biden initially sought re-election but withdrew from the race in July 2024 due to concerns about his age and health. Vice President Kamala Harris then announced her candidacy and secured the nomination with Minnesota Governor Tim Walz as her running mate.

Amid violence, hostility, and debates about human rights, immigration, and “woke” culture, the election resulted in the former president defeating incumbent vice president. Trump secured 312 electoral votes to Harris's 226 and won the popular vote with 49.8% compared to Harris's 48.3%. This marked the second time a president would serve 2 non-consecutive terms (Grover Cleveland was the first).