Embedded Files
Learning Objectives:
Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.
Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.
Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898.
Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time.
Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898.
Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time.
Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time.
Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society.
Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age.
Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.
Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age.
Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898.
Western Expansion
Transcontinental Railroads
Transcontinental Railroads
Following the end of the Civil War, the United States could get back to what they love doing - expanding! With the industrial revolution and the growth of railroads, the country was becoming settled, and the last of the frontier lands disappeared. The goal was to connect markets from all across the nation through the development of transcontinental railroads, the first of which was completed in 1869 through the partnership of Union Pacific and Central Pacific. More followed, connecting all of the major cities.
While this opened up markets for businessmen, merchants, and farmers, it came at cost. The environmental impact of industrialization depleted natural resources and nearly exterminated the buffalo (and the Native Americans who depended on them for survival).
Filling in the Frontier
Filling in the Frontier
Since the land lacked the terrain for farming, pioneers passed through the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, and the Western Plateau and pushed further west for greener pastures. With little rain, few trees, harsh winters, and blistering summers, this dry and barren area became known as the “Great American Desert”. With the expansion of railroads, however, this area was ripe for settlement. Towns sprung up along the rail lines, and soon territories had enough people to apply for statehood.
In 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau announced that the entire frontier had been settled. Following this declaration, historian Frederick Jackson Turner published “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, explaining that settlement of these lands was an evolutionary process, starting with hunters, then miners and farmers, finally people, leading to the growth of civilization. This experience shaped American culture and identity, but came at the cost of lives and resources. Turner further wondered if the end of the frontier would lead to America becoming more like Europe, divided and forever in conflict.
Mining
Mining
The California Gold Rush was the first of many mass migrations west in search of an easy fortune, bringing people from all over the nation and even other parts of the world. Mining of gold and silver accelerated the statehood for Nevada, Idaho, and Montana. As soon as gold or silver was discovered, towns sprung up overnight to accommodate the flood of hopeful settlers. These “boomtowns” became infamous for their loose morals and chaotic lifestyles, but often disappeared once the mines were emptied. Those that survived developed into prosperous cities much like those found back east.
Cattle Drives
Cattle Drives
Borrowing from the traditions of Mexican cowboys (or “vaqueros”), ranchers recognized the potential to expand their business and capitalized on the vast open plains of middle America to round up and sell wild cattle. With railroads expanding west, cattle drives from Texas would bring cows by the hundreds to stockyards in Kansas, selling them for steep prices. For those with limited education and opportunities, the life of a cowboy was dangerous but paid well.
As more people came west and the movement of cattle destroyed the remaining grassland, cattle drives started to decline in the 1880s. Those who had made a fortune in the business established large ranches, developing new techniques and breeding strategies to get the most from their herds. Beef became more popular than pork, and the legacy of the cowboy life endured as part of the American identity.
Farming the Frontier
Farming the Frontier
During the Civil War, the government encouraged western settlement through the Homestead Act, offering 160 acres of public land free to any family who agreed to stay there for five years. Thousands of Americans flooded into the Great Plains, but some of the best available land was bought up by railroad companies and speculators looking to make a profit. Life for these homesteaders was difficult, as they lived in homes made of sod while trying to farm the plains amidst extreme weather conditions, minimal water, few resources, and fewer people. The few crops they were able to produce were not enough to turn a profit, and ⅔ of the farms failed. Those that managed to survive adopted dry-farming techniques, plowing deep to access more moisture and growing crops that could withstand the extreme weather conditions. Eventually, the government built irrigation systems to provide water for western farmers.
With the spread of industrialization, Jefferson’s dream of an agrarian society was fading away, as less than 37% of the American population worked as farmers. Farming became commercialized and specialized. Falling prices of crops meant more had to be produced to make a profit, so farmers relied on expensive machinery and farms started to be run like factories. Smaller farms were driven out of business. Additionally, increased global production continued to drive down prices, and the American economy experienced deflation (each dollar is worth more due to a limited money supply). This created a vicious cycle putting farmers continuously in debt and at risk of losing everything.
Between excessive taxes, high rates for the transportation of their goods, greedy corporations and “middlemen”, American farmers were faced with no choice but to abandon their individualistic ways and organize themselves.
Grangers
Grangers
The National Grange Movement or National Grange of Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1868
Chapters in almost every state
Worked to defend members against middlemen, trusts, and railroads
Established cooperatives - businesses owned and run by farmers to avoid the use of middlemen
Got governments to pass laws regulating prices for railroads and elevators (Munn v. Illinois)
Farmers' Alliances
Farmers' Alliances
State and regional groups focused on economic and political action
Exchanged knowledge on scientific farming methods to improve crop yields
About 1 million farmers belonged by 1890, regardless of race or region
Ocala Platform
Ocala Platform
National organization of farmers who attacked both major political parties for their failure to protect farmers during a meeting in Florida in 1890
Called for reforms of taxes, banking, currency, and the election process
Did not form a political party but their ideas became part of the Populist movement
Cultures Clash Over Land
Originally, frontier lands were reserved for American Indians displaced by Jackson’s removal policies. At the time, it was believed these lands would forever be “Indian country”, but as the country expanded, more and more of this territory was claimed by American settlers and the natives were once again pushed out. In 1851, the federal government began to assign tribes plots of land with defined boundaries known as “reservations”. This conflicted with the tribes’ lifestyles and traditions, so many refused to remain tethered to the land they were assigned.
Once again, the encroachment of farmers, miners, and other settlers led to conflict and violence with the native tribes. The U.S. Army would intervene, massacring whole tribes. The American Indians were not completely defenseless, however. Native fighters wiped out an entire army regiment during the Sioux War. Treaties were established to isolate the American Indians, but these agreements were often neglected.
Following the Indian Appropriation Act of 1871, Native American tribes were no longer considered independent nations by the federal government, meaning that any treaties made no longer required Congressional approval. Violence ensued once again, the most famous example of which is the Battle of Little Big Horn of 1876, where Colonel George Custer and his troops were defeated by a Sioux battle party. Between conflict and the loss of the buffalo herds, the Plains Indians were forced to change their ways.
Ghost Dance Movement: Based on a prophecy that promised a revitalization of Native American traditional ways of life, the return of ancestral lands, and the removal of the influence of settlers, this religious movement was the final effort of the Plain Indians to resist the U.S. government. Americans saw this movement as a threat and the Massacre at Wounded Knee brought it to an abrupt end.
Assimilationists: While some felt pity for the American Indians, many supported assimilation, or the process of making Native Americans adopt the American way of life, replacing their tribal traditions. Religious organizations and government agencies worked to provide formal education, job training, and religious conversion to make the Native Americans become more “civilized”.
Dawes Severalty Act (1887): Tribal lands were divided into plots, tribal alliances were disrupted, and Native Americans were forced to assimilate while the best of their lands was sold off. Between poverty and disease, the population of American Indians dwindled.
The failure of this (and other similar acts to force assimilation) is later recognized by the government, who grants citizenship to all American Indians in 1924 and returns some tribal lands through the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934.
Another group threatened by the settling of the frontier were the Mexican-Americans. When Mexico claimed its independence from Spain, it maintained a cooperative relationship with the United States through trade along the Santa Fe Trail. After the Mexican-American War, those that lived on the lands granted to the United States were “guaranteed” their property rights and citizenship, but many lost their lands and homes due to drawn out legal proceedings and greed. Mexicans managed to maintain their culture in the areas where they were the majority, mostly in towns and cities bordering Mexico. While many found work on farms, in the mines, or along the railroad, the rest competed with Native Americans and white settlers for land in the southwest.
Conservation
Conservation
As the United States filled in the edges of their map, people started to voice concerns for the impact of this exponential growth on the environment. Miners stripped the mountains of their minerals, settlers impeded on the roaming of plains animals, and massive forests were cut down to make way for new railroads and cities. Recognition that natural resources should be protected and preserved for future generations lead to the conservation movement. Conservationists wanted to regulate the use of natural resources, while preservationists went a step further and wanted to protect them from any human interference.
John Muir, dubbed the “patron saint of the American wilderness”, worked to convince Congress to preserve natural wonders. Eventually, this led to the creation of national parks, forest preserves, and other legislation to protect the natural environment of the United States.
PS: If you haven't visited our national parks, you're missing out!
Yellowstone
Yosemite
Grand Tetons
Acadia
Haleakalā
Arches
Rocky Mountain
Grand Canyon
The "New South"
What's "New"?
What's "New"?
While the government focused on the frontier, the south was still rebuilding following the Civil War and Reconstruction. Many promoted the vision of the “New South”, highlighting the improvements that have been made to their economy through industrialization, capitalist values, and improved race relations. Others clung to the ways of the past, causing conflict.
Improvements:
Local governments offered tax exemptions to attract new businesses
Growth of textile industry
Expansion of railroad lines
Growth of cities centered on industry (Birmingham - steel, Memphis - lumber, & Richmond - tobacco)
Problems:
Racial tensions exacerbated by Reconstruction politics
Northern investors controlled most of the Southern economy
Failure to expand public education held back the potential of those living and working in the South
Tenant Farming vs. Sharecropping
Tenant Farming vs. Sharecropping
Despite industrial expansion, the South remained largely dependent on agriculture. Regardless of race, most farmers in 1900 were either tenant farmers (rented the land they farmed) or sharecroppers (paid for use of the land/house/tools/supplies with a portion of their crop yields). Since people were poor and the North controlled much of the South’s economy, southern banks did not have enough money to lend aspiring farmers. Left without other options, farmers were forced to borrow whatever they needed on credit, creating an endless cycle of debt in which many risked their homes and lands to scrape by each year.
Much like the farmers in the west, Southern farmers also organized to rally behind political reforms to solve their economic troubles, but powerful racial attitudes kept groups from joining forces and creating real change.
Challenges for African-Americans
Challenges for African-Americans
When Reconstruction ended, so too did the protection of African-Americans by Northern activists. Redeemer Democrats, supported by white supremacists and the wealthy elite, reclaimed the positions of power denied to them by Republicans during Reconstruction and worked to restore the South to their former way of life. African-Americans were subject to segregation (or separation in public places) and outright violence while politicians used the issue of race to distract voters from the pressing economic issues. Laws previously passed by Congress to protect African Americans from discrimination were struck down.
Civil Rights Case of 1883: Congress could not ban discrimination by private individuals and businesses, allowing hotels and railroads to refuse service to anyone they wished
Plessy vs. Ferguson: allowed states to provide separate but equal accommodations and services
Jim Crow laws: a series of laws passed throughout the South limiting where African-Americans could live, work, walk, eat, etc.
Literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses were added to prevent African-Americans from exercising their right to vote.
In some states, African-Americans couldn’t serve on juries and if accused of a crime, they were not guaranteed a fair trial.
Lynch mobs were ogranized to scare African-Americans into submission or evacuation.
Economic troubles, lack of education, and competition with poor Whites relegated many African-Americans to agriculture work.
Notable Men of the Time
George Washington Carver
George Washington Carver
In the late 18th century, farmers of the American South still relied heavily on cotton. Dr. George Washington Carver, an African-American scientist at the Tuskegee Institute promoted growing new crops that would shift the south away from a dependence on cotton while also preventing the depletion of nutrients from the soil. The child of ex-slaves, he was committed to helping the poorest of the poor, encouraging farmers to grow sweet potatoes, soybeans, and peanuts. He is best known for discovering hundreds of uses for peanuts and helping establish Tuskegee University in Alabama (along with Booker T. Washington).
Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington
Born a slave, Booker T. Washington graduated from Hampton Institute and worked to establish an industrial and agricultural university for African-American students. He argued that, instead of fighting against the injustices they were facing, African-Americans should instead work hard, and in doing so they will show Whites their worth. Known as the Atlanta Compromise, Washington believed that all southerners had a responsibility to make their region prosperous, thus Whites should support education and job training for Blacks. While some disapproved of Washington’s nonchalant attitude about segregation, others praised him for encouraging the growth of black-owned businesses.
W.E.B. DuBois
W.E.B. DuBois
W.E.B DuBois, on the other hand, advocated for an immediate end to segregation and demanded equal rights and opportunities for all Americans. His ideas are represented by many leaders in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.
Advancements in Technology
Edison & Westinghouse
Edison & Westinghouse
Starting as a telegraph operator, Thomas Edison would become one of the most notable inventors of the 19th century. Working in Menlo Park, NJ, Edison researched, developed, and patented over 1,000 inventions, including the phonograph, a voting machine, the mimeograph machine, and the motion picture camera. Of course, he is best known for his work with electric power and lighting through the development of generators and the “incandescent lamp” (a.k.a. light bulb). Electric light revolutionized the lives of everyday people, creating the possibility for nightlife in urban areas, extended working hours in factories, and spawning a whole new generation of innovations founded on electricity.
The lesser-known George Westinghouse was also a remarkable 19th century inventor, credited with the air brake for railroads and a transformer for producing alternating current. Together with General Electric, Westinghouse rendered Edison’s direct current system obsolete and dominated the world of electricity.
Urbanization
Urbanization
Before the Civil War, urban dwellers typically lived within walking distance of their place of work, but with improvements in transportation and technology, they started being able to commute. By the 1890s, horse-drawn carriages and cable cars are being replaced by electric trolleys, railroads, and subways. The use of steel allowed for more durable bridges, allowing people to commute from outside the city, eventually creating suburbs.
Steel also allowed buildings to grow up. William La Baron Jenny designed the first steel skyscraper in Chicago in 1885, and many other skyscrapers followed. Cities grew up as well as out, bringing in people by the thousands. Skyscrapers encouraged other related innovations, like the Otis elevator and the radiator.
Between massive immigration and the economic opportunities offered in urban settings, more Americans lived in cities than in rural areas by 1920. To accommodate this growth, cities underwent significant developments.
Streetcar suburbs: communities that grew along transit routes leading to the urban center, allowing people to live farther away from their place of work
Tenement apartments: narrow, low-rise apartment buildings housing thousands of people in crammed, windowless rooms with no regard for privacy, safety, or public health
Dumbbell tenements: in response to laws challenging the horrendous living conditions in tenements, landlords created buildings with open ventilation shafts and windows in each room, but still packed people in
Ethnic neighborhoods: facing discrimination and missing home, many groups of immigrants settled in one area so they had a place to maintain their traditions in peace → Little Italy, Chinatown
Adjusting to Growth
Adjusting to Growth
As cities became more diverse, organized groups emerged that worked to form strategic alliances and gain popular support for future aspirations. These “political machines” each had a “boss” delegating tasks and setting the goals for the group. Some political machines established social clubs that developed into centers for the coordination of business, politics, and community outreach, finding immigrants and the poor housing, employment, and other basic necessities. In return, they expected your vote on election day. As their power and influence expanded, so did their greed, causing many to embezzle money from public funds, the most famous case being that of Tammany Hall.
The rapid growth of urban areas and insufficient housing of immigrants and the poor concerned many citizens, but young, educated, middle class women most of all. To solve the problems facing those stricken by poverty in the city, reformers created settlement houses where the poor could find shelter, food, medicine, daycare, language classes, job training, and other social services. The most famous of these was Hull House, established by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889. Although these institutions didn’t immediately solve the problems for the nation’s poor, their children benefited from the services provided and were able to improve their station when they reached adulthood.
Consumerism
Consumerism
Between mass production, accelerated transportation, and the development of consumer goods, new companies were able to develop around the business of selling everyday items to the whole nation.
Department Stores → Macy’s
“Five-and-dime” stores → Woolworth’s
Mail-order catalog companies → Sears & Montgomery Ward
Packaged foods → Kellogg & Post
Such industries led to the creation of advertising and marketing agencies, turning the United States into a consumer economy and culture centered around shopping.
Other Inventions of the 19th Century
Other Inventions of the 19th Century
A key aspect of industrialization is innovation. New inventions provide new and better services, thus giving more people opportunities while also encouraging others to create the latest and greatest technology.
Communication
Transatlantic Cable → allowed for telegraphs to be sent overseas
Telephone → Alexander Graham Bell 1876
Business
Typewriter
Cash register
Calculating/Adding machines
Misc.
Kodak Camera → George Eastman 1888
Fountain Pen → Lewis E. Waterman 1884
Safety Razor → King Gillette 1895
Steel → stronger metal crafted through a specialized method known as the Bessemer Process
Rise of Capitalism
Big Business
Big Business
Cities, industries, and consumers, old and new, were all connected literally and figuratively by railroads, which became the nation’s first big business. Following the Civil War, railroads expanded exponentially, subsidized by low-interest loans from the federal government and replacing all other forms of transportation. Railroads promoted the industries that they depended on, like steel and coal, while also encouraging the expansion of markets, mass production, mass consumerism, and economic specialization.
The dependence on railroads changed daily life, as the American Railroad Association divided the country into time zones. As more people got involved with railroads, business investment and management practices changed, leading to the creation of modern stockholder corporations.
As people recognized the success of men like Vanderbilt, Rockefeller, Carnegie, and Morgan, other industry leaders sought to emulate them, organizing companies in a variety of ways:
Consolidation: the process of combining a number of business into a single, more effective company
Monopoly: a company that dominates a market so much that it faces little to no competition from other companies → Why is this a problem?
Trust: an organization or board that manages the assets of other companies
Interlocking directorates: the same directors run competing companies (creating regional monopolies)
Horizontal Integration: process by which one company takes control of all its former competitors in a specific industry
Vertical Integration: process by which companies control all stages of making a product
Holding Company: created to own and control a variety of companies
Cornelius Vanderbilt
Cornelius Vanderbilt
Having earned his fortune through the steamboat business, “Commodore” Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated local railroads into the New York Central Railroad, a trunk line running from New York City to Chicago. By dominating the industry, he was able to standardize how rail lines were managed and make them more efficient.
Although successful, Vanderbilt was a ruthless businessman who was known for his aggressive and often brutal tactics. He became a role model for future tycoons of industry who admired his commitment to efficiency and minimizing costs while maximizing profits.
Jay Gould
Jay Gould
The fervor over the blossoming railroad industry led many to make poor financial decisions and many companies suffered. Speculators like Jay Gould worked their way into the business by buying up railroad companies, consolidating them, selling off their assets, and watering down their stocks. His practices made him millions while forcing smaller companies to scramble to compete, offering rebates and forming pools.
Gould used his position in the railroad industry as a launching pad for control of other businesses, including the telegraph (Western Union) and the gold market (partnered with James Fiske; “Black Friday” strategy led to a financial panic).
JP Morgan
JP Morgan
A financial crisis pushed many railroads into bankruptcy, which gave an opportunity for new men to take control of the industry by buying up failed or failing companies, consolidating them, and minimizing competition.
Morgan invested his profits into rising industries, helping create General Electric, United States Steel, and eventually, J.P. Morgan & Co. He also played a role in the creation of federal reserve. His financial acumen, intervention during crises, and contributions to banking reforms left a lasting impact on the U.S. economy.
Andrew Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie
While the first industrial revolution revolved around the production of textiles, clothing, and leather, the second focused on the production of steel, petroleum, electricity, and machinery. The burgeoning steel industry in America was dominated by Andrew Carnegie. A poor immigrant from Scotland, Carnegie worked his way up the Pennsylvania Railroad, and then brought the Bessemer process to the US and started manufacturing steel in Pittsburgh. By creating the best steel and using vertical integration.
Carnegie Steel was sold to JP Morgan who used it to create US Steel, while Carnie used the profits to build libraries, schools, and practice his belief in the “Gospel of Wealth” (the rich have a responsibility to use their money for good).
John D Rockefeller
John D Rockefeller
Following the discovery of oil in the US in 1859, John D. Rockefeller established a company that would dominate the nation’s refineries - Standard Oil. Controlling 90% of the business by 1881, it had become a monopoly, allowing Rockefeller to control the supply and prices of oil.
Unfortunately for Rockefeller and other monopolists, the government sought to minimize the power of these men. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that monopolies were illegal, and forced Standard Oil to be dissolved into smaller companies. Ironically, this move actually made Rockefeller more wealthy, and he used his profits for philanthropic pursuits.
Justifying & Protecting Wealth
Laissez-Faire Economics
Laissez-Faire Economics
The rapid growth of industrialization and the tycoons championing new businesses forced the government to play catch up, and in doing so, they had to determine what the role of government should be in the national economy.
On the one hand, they want to encourage growth and benefit from profits. On the other, the government has a responsibility to ensure all citizens are taken care of. During this time, most favored the laissez-faire (“allow to do”) approach to economics, rejecting the idea of government regulation of business. This was first proposed by Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations in 1776. Smith argued that, while some regulations are necessary, it is better to let businesses operate without interference, as they will act out of their own self-interest and strive to provide the best goods and services possible. Monopolists took advantage of this attitude to push back against government regulation and maximize their profits, often at the expense of their workers.
Social Darwinism & Immense Wealth
Social Darwinism & Immense Wealth
Although Darwin’s theories of natural selection and evolution offended religious conservatives, economic conservatives applied the principles to argue against government regulation of business. Social Darwinism was the belief that “survival of the fittest” could apply to the economy, implying that strong businesses thrive while weaker businesses are crushed. Some took this idea even further, stating that wealth and power should be in the hands of those best suited to use it properly. Furthermore, providing aid to the poor and needy was a misguided practice that would weaken the human race as a whole. In later decades, these principles were used to justify racial intolerance, as some claimed that certain groups were superior to others.
This period in American history is called the Gilded Age for many reasons, but one is the obscene wealth of the elite. Aggressive business practices, minimal government regulation (often maintained through bribery and corruption), and American dependence on industry allowed for a new class of millionaires, in which 10% of the population controlled 90% of the nation’s wealth. Men like Edison and Carnegie inspired others as products of the American dream, self-made men who worked their way to the top. Unfortunately, stories like their were rare, and most of the wealthy families of the late 19th century were the products of generational wealth. Regardless of their start in life, the wealthy people of the time had no shame in flaunting their success, throwing lavish parties, building ornate mansions, and traveling the world on their own yachts.
The Life of a Laborer
The Life of a Laborer
The wealthy elite made their millions off the backs of the poor, who worked for minimal wages in horrendous conditions.
10 hours a day, six days a week
Intense physical labor, exposure to chemicals/pollutants, & lack of safety protocol/measures
No sick leave, no workers compensation, no vacation, no guarantee of employment
Couldn’t support a family on one income, requiring all able-bodied members to work
12% of children employed in 1870
20% of children employed in 1900
By 1890, 88% of families average less than $380 a year in income
Little to no chance for upward mobility
Fighting for Change
Fighting for Change
Although conditions were terrible, workers had few options to make change. They could go on strike, quit, and change jobs to protest, but were easily replaced. Employers used a variety of methods to squash any discontent among workers:
Lockout: closing a factory to break a labor movement
Blacklist: roster of pro-union workers that employers circulated to prevent them from being hired
Yellow-dog contract: condition of employment that prevented workers from joining a union
Convinced the public that unions were un-American
Private guards & state militia: employers paid people to put down strikes by any means necessary
Court injunction: judicial action by employer to prevent or end a strike
Furthermore, politicians were often paid off by industrialists to block any legislation that would slow down their profits. With no other option, much like the farmers of the west and south, miners and laborers started to organize.
While some union leaders made attempts to take political action, others favored more direct confrontation, organizing strikes, picketing, boycotts, slowdowns, or the use of collective bargaining (workers join together to negotiate for better working conditions and/or wages as a group; strength in numbers). Originally, unions were organized around one type of work (craft unions). However, the widespread economic and working conditions for laborers changed the way unions were organized.
National Labor Union (1866): first attempt to bring together all skilled and unskilled laborers to advocate for higher wages and an 8-hour workday while also pushing for equal rights for women and African-Americans, monetary reform, and worker cooperatives. Lost support due to lack of success and an economic depression.
Knights of Labor (1869): originally formed in secret, this union opened membership to all workers, advocating for forming cooperatives, ending child labor, abolishing trusts and monopolies, and settling disputes through arbitration. Declined after the Haymarket Riot.
American Federation of Labor (1866): association of craft unions focused on improving wages and working conditions through walkouts and collective bargaining
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Haymarket Square Riot
Homestead Strike
Pullman Strike
The Gilded Age
What's in a name?
What's in a name?
First used by Mark Twain in 1873, the phrase “gilded age” came to represent America in the late 19th and early 20th century, as it was known for the inconceivable wealth that came with the spread of industrialization and the rise of monopolies. The glittering wealth distracted the masses from the millions of poor, struggling workers the elite built their empires on.
Immigration
Adding to the Melting Pot
Adding to the Melting Pot
Through the 1880s, the majority of immigrants to America came from northern and western Europe (Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Denmark). Since they were largely white, educated, Protestants, they easily assimilated to life in the United States and faced little discrimination.
Starting in the 1890s, immigrants came from other parts of Europe (Greece, Italy, Croatia, Russia) and did not blend in as easily. Their governments were largely autocratic, making them unfamiliar with democratic traditions. Their language featured different characters, making it difficult to learn English and for people to understand them when they did. Although the United States had no official religion, citizens discriminated against Catholics, Russian/Greek Orthodox, and Jews. With little money and education, they flooded into cities in search of jobs in factories, mines, or construction.
Following the discovery of gold, a new group of immigrants came from a different part of the world - Asia. If they didn’t strike it big, many found work along the railroad or in the ports. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882, preventing immigrants from China coming to the US, but people from other parts of Asia (Japan, Korea, the Philippines) came to Hawaii, California, and parts of the west. A rise in anti-Asian feelings pushed Congress to expand their immigration restrictions, ending most immigration from the continent.
Push & Pull Factors
Push & Pull Factors
Industrialization connected the world, bringing thousands of immigrants to the United States in the late 19th century, tripling the population and bringing a variety of cultures together.
Push Factors (negative factors forcing people to move)
Poverty
Lack of opportunities
Famine
Political turmoil
Overcrowding
Religious persecution
Pull Factors (positive factors of the adopted country)
Political and religious freedom
Abundance of jobs and opportunities
Years of prosperity (ignoring the years of depression)
Affordable transportation
Opposition to Immigration
Opposition to Immigration
Originally, the United States welcomed everyone. As time passed, however, more and more restrictions were placed on which immigrants would be allowed and which would be turned away. This shift can be attributed to a variety of factors:
Labor unions knew that employers would hire immigrants more readily because they could pay them less, making immigration a challenge to improving working conditions for the average laborer.
Although they benefited from cheaper labor, employers feared immigrants would bring over radical ideas that would disrupt their capitalist system.
Nativists, who had existed for some time, feared immigrants would change the American identity and challenge the Anglo majority.
Social Darwinists argued that non-Europeans (and even eastern Europeans) were biologically inferior and would prevent American progress.
These ideas caused resentment and tension between those born in the US and those born elsewhere. Laws were passed to regulate immigration, but this didn’t stop people from coming to America in hope of a better life.
Ellis Island opened as an immigration center along New York Harbor in 1892. New arrivals had to go through medical inspections, pay a fee, and sometimes be interviewed to demonstrate their language skills and political ties. It’s west-coast counterpart, Angel Island, operated in San Francisco Bay from 1910 to 1940, monitoring immigrants coming from Asia. The ease of admittance fluctuated with the economy and public opinion.
Challenging Traditions & Changing Times
Political Machines
Political Machines
As cities became more diverse, organized groups emerged that worked to form strategic alliances and gain popular support for future aspirations. These “political machines” each had a “boss” delegating tasks and setting the goals for the group. Some political machines established social clubs that developed into centers for the coordination of business, politics, and community outreach, finding immigrants and the poor housing, employment, and other basic necessities. In return, they expected your vote on election day. As their power and influence expanded, so did their greed, causing many to embezzle money from public funds, the most famous case being that of Tammany Hall.
Growth of the Middle Class
Growth of the Middle Class
The immense divide between the wealthy elite and the working class does not mean that there was no middle class. In fact, industrialization and expanded educational opportunities allowed for many to work their way out of poverty and attain higher paying jobs. Every factory needed foremen and managers, every office needed administrators and secretaries (middle management & “white-collar workers”). While those in the middle class didn’t have the abundance of wealth of the Carnegies and Rockefellers, they also didn’t have the crippling debt of the laborers, so they could afford luxury items and consumer goods, creating a demand for salespeople, storekeepers, artists, and entertainers. They were able to have leisure time, creating a whole new market and the development of popular culture.
Helping the Poor
Helping the Poor
The rapid growth of urban areas and insufficient housing of immigrants and the poor concerned many citizens, but young, educated, middle class women most of all. To solve the problems facing those stricken by poverty in the city, reformers created settlement houses where the poor could find shelter, food, medicine, daycare, language classes, job training, and other social services. The most famous of these was Hull House, established by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889. Although these institutions didn’t immediately solve the problems for the nation’s poor, their children benefited from the services provided and were able to improve their station when they reached adulthood.
Andrew Carnegie, a man who started as a poor immigrant and rose to be one of the wealthiest men in American history, didn’t forget his humble beginnings. He argued that the rich have the responsibility to use their wealth for good, for the benefit of the poor. His belief, known as the “Gospel of Wealth”, encouraged philanthropy among the nation’s elite, leading to the creation of schools, hospitals, libraries, and other institutions to improve the lives of the poor. Despite this belief, Carnegie also supported laissez-faire capitalism, meaning that poor workers were taken advantage of. Regardless, Carnegie gave away over $350 million dollars to fund education, music, etc.
Another movement that inspired many to help those in need was the Social Gospel movement. It applied the Christian principles of charity and kindness to society's problems, encouraging members of the middle and upper class to support efforts to improve the lives of the nation's poor. Groups like the Salvation Army were established to provide food, clothing, and other basic necessities.
Industrialization Inspires Progress
Industrialization Inspires Progress
Changes in Education
School attendance is bolstered by compulsory education laws, increasing the literacy rate as well as the demand for schooling options. Kindergarten helps young children adjust to formal education and tax-funded public high schools provide the knowledge and skills needed to pursue a modest career after graduation.
Women and minorities have schools built specifically for their education, helping them earn more equality.
With more white-collar jobs, people need further education, leading to the creation of technical colleges and universities, often funded by aspiring philanthropists. With more institutions available, secondary education became more affordable.
Electives are introduced to allow students to learn about subjects beyond those required.
New fields with social science expand education to include investigation of human affairs.
Independent, Working Women
20% of women were in the labor force in 1900, mostly young and single
While the dominant belief was that a woman’s place was in the home, the expansion of education and the dependence of multiple incomes brought more women into the workforce, some becoming everything from secretaries and bookkeepers to doctors and lawyers.
Women had less children and there was a rise in divorce rates, as they had opportunities to support themselves and did not depend on marriage.
Although the cause had been in existence for decades, the women’s suffrage movement gained momentum in the 1890s through the work of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Together they founded the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) to secure the right to vote for women. The first state to do so was Wyoming in 1869, but many had followed by 1900. Even if denied the right to vote, women were gaining other rights in some states, like being able to own and control property after marriage.
Suburbs - The American Dream
The expansion of transportation allowed people to move away from the city, leaving behind the crime, pollution, and crowds for homes with several rooms and manicured lawns. This eventually become symbolic of the American dream.
This migration encouraged cities to reform practices, making it more hospitable. Legislation regulates urban development, working to make them clean and even beautiful.
Rise of Pop Culture
Circulation of newspapers & magazines spread more than news - sensational stories (fictional or not), advice columns, exposés, scandals, etc.
Barnum & Bailey Circus brings amazing acrobats and exotic animals to towns across the country.
Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show exposes the cowboy lifestyle to city dwellers.
Spectator sports like baseball, football, and basketball draw huge crowds and establish die-hard fans.
Amateur sports like golf, tennis, croquet, crew, and cycling promote healthy lifestyles through physical activity.
Investment in activities for the rich and famous leads to the creation of opera houses and concert halls. Outdoor bandstands spring up providing live music for small towns.
Genres like jazz, ragtime, and blues expand the appeal of music and gain popularity in urban areas.
Push for Prohibition
Another cause that found traction in the new century was that of temperance, or the movement to end the recreational use of alcohol. Many believed alcohol was a cause of poverty, domestic violence, and poor work ethic, while others associated drinking with immigrant groups. The work of groups like Anti-Saloon League and individuals like Carrie A. Nation pushed for legislation limiting the sale and consumption of alcohol.
Shifts in Art & Architecture
The literary landscape shifted in the post-Civil War era, with romantic stories of great heroes to rugged tales of life out west, while works like Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn challenged the traditions of American society by exposing the greed, violence, and racism many face every day. Many new authors favored naturalism, focusing on how emotions and experience influence people, making their stories more relatable.
City life left many missing the great outdoors, so many painters created beautiful landscapes using realism. Others sought to portray the lives of average citizens, depicting scenes in hospitals or on the streets.
The use of steel allowed architects the chance to dream big, literally and figuratively. Some brought back Medieval styles, while others worked to usher in a new era. Their work can be seen not only in the nation’s early skyscrapers, but also in parks, suburbs, and universities.
Political Challenges
Political Challenges
Laissez-faire economics and Social Darwinism supported the idea that the government should stay out of business, but growing discontent among the nation’s working class called many to reconsider the “hands-off” approach, especially during periods of financial crisis. While not as active as they would be in future decades, the federal government did make some attempts to promote growth and competition:
Land grants - The federal government provided subsidies (land and loans) for railroad companies, believing that would encourage settlement and drive down shipping/transportation costs.
Credit Mobilier Controversy: illegal manipulation of contracts and construction costs through the use of bribery to increase profits
Court decisions - Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 required railroad rates to be “reasonable and just” and established the ICC to investigate railroads’ practices.
Antitrust Movement - Fearful of the power certain trusts wielded over the government and its citizens, Congress was pushed to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, making monopolies effectively illegal, though later legislation said this only applied to commerce and not manufacturing, thus further legislative action was needed.
Following President Garfield’s assassination, Congress passed the Pendleton Act of 1881, which set up a Civil Service Commission to provide a pool of qualified applicants for government jobs that would be monitored and examined by federal officials. This change convinced many politicians to seek funding from the wealthy rather than the masses.
In order to promote a healthy economy, more money needed to be in circulation, though this idea increased tension between the working class and wealthy elites. Farmers, laborers, and those just starting out wanted “soft” money, finding it more attainable and easier to borrow money or repay debts. They blamed the gold standard for the Panic of 1873. Bankers, investors, and tycoons of industry, on the other hand, stood firm on the use of “hard” money, backed by gold, arguing it would hold its value better during period of inflation.
Congress stopped coining silver in the 1870s, but the practice was reignited when silver deposits were discovered in the west. To make use of the material without saturating the market, the Bland-Allison Act was passed, limiting the coinage of silver to between $2 million and $4 million each month. Being worth less than gold made it a good alternative for the average citizen, but the limited supply allowed in circulation left many frustrated.
Tariffs had been raised during the Civil War to protect US industry, but with the war over, many asked for those tariffs to be decreased or removed altogether, finding that they raised prices for consumers and discouraged international trade.
New Parties
New Parties
Greenbacks, or paper money not backed by gold and silver, was used during the Civil War as an emergency funding measure, but they had since been removed from circulation in 1875. As the question of currency reemerged, a new political party was established to bring back paper money, aptly named the Greenback Party. Although they died out by 1870, their ideas lived on.
As previously mentioned, the grievances of western and southern farmers led many to seek political action. Although they fell short of establishing a party, their ideas provided the foundation for one later on. The People’s (or Populist) Party was formed in Omaha, NE in 1892, where they established a platform and nominated candidates for the upcoming election.
Their goals included:
Direct election of US senator through popular vote
The use of initiatives and referendums (allowing citizens to vote directly on policy)
Unlimited coinage of silver
Graduated income tax
Government ownership of railroads, telegraph lines, and telephone systems
Loans and federal warehouses to stabilize crop prices for farmers
An 8-hour workday for industrial workers
Republicans
Republicans
Kept the Civil War alive by reminding the public of the South’s traitorous past
Antislavery efforts in the past helped them maintain the votes of African Americans and reformers (specifically those committed to temperance & prohibition, bringing many Protestant groups too)
Businessmen and middle class voters favored the pro-business economic programs
Democrats
Democrats
Continued to hold onto the South
Northern presence came from big-city political machines and immigrants
Catholics, Lutherans, and Jews disagreed with temperance and prohibition, and we’re often discriminated against for their beliefs
Continued to argue for the Jeffersonian principles of limited federal government
Election of 1892
Election of 1892
The Election of 1892 had three candidates - Populist James Weaver, Republican President Benjamin Harrison, and former president Democrat Grover Cleveland. While the Populists made a strong showing for a third party, their demands for government regulation lost them support. Cleveland won both the popular vote and electoral votes, making him the only president to return to the White House after leaving office.
Almost immediately after Cleveland’s inauguration, the nation plummeted into an economic depression. The stock market crashed as a result of overspeculation, leading to many companies declaring bankruptcy and farms foreclosing. As unemployment hit 20%, many relied on soup kitchens and other service organizations to survive. Cleveland responded by backing the gold standard and maintaining a hands-off approach, believing the economy would eventually right itself. As a result, investors traded silver for gold and Cleveland repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, but this didn’t stop the depleting supply of gold. Without an alternative, Cleveland turned to banking tycoon J.P. Morgan, borrowing $65 million dollars. This move lost him support, since many became convinced that government was a tool of the rich, especially as he used court injunctions and federal troops to end strikes.
The Democrats got Congress to pass the Wilson-Gorman Tariff in 1894 which reduced tariff rates and included a 2% income tax on incomes over $2,000. With the average American living off less than $500, this was a popular move as it only impacted the wealthy. Unfortunately, it was struck down a year later when the Supreme Court ruled income taxes unconstitutional.
Growing numbers of unemployed workers made many uneasy, especially with numerous strikes and organized protests happened more and more frequently. Populist Jacob Coxey led a march on Washington demanding the government to invest in public works projects to create jobs. “Coxey’s Army”, as they were known, were arrested, and their demands ignored.
Election of 1896
Election of 1896
The Election of 1896 called upon presidential candidates to offer ways to end the economic crisis. Cleveland was essentially ruled out as an option due to his ineffective and unpopular actions. Republicans argued against the use of silver and for higher tariffs, while Democrats called for lower tariffs but were divided over currency issues.
At the Democratic National Convention, William Jennings Bryan gave a passionate speech about bringing tycoons like Carnegie and Rockefeller. Striking home with the laborers and poor, this “Cross of Gold” speech earned him the nomination of the Democratic Party. Supporting silver coinage brought members of the Populist party to Bryan’s side, giving him a clear advantage.
Republicans (and Democrats against the use of silver known as “Gold Bugs”) supported William McKinley for president, claiming that he could return the United States to a period of prosperity with high tariffs and the use of the gold standard.
While Bryan campaigned to large crowds across the country, McKinley (backed by big business) remained at home. Mark Hanna, did most of McKinley’s campaigning for him, using mass media to discredit Bryan and sell the public on McKinley. Despite Bryan’s popularity, McKinley won over fear of factory closures and widespread unemployment.
Once in office, the economy turned in McKinley’s favor, bolstered by the discovery of gold in Alaska increasing the money supply. As things started to improve, Republicans honored their promise by passing the Dingley Tariff of 1897, increasing tariffs and establishing gold as the official currency of the US. Between the economic shift and overseeing the nation’s victory in the Spanish-American war, McKinley was relatively well-liked. He emerged as the first modern president and ushered in an era of Republican dominance.
The Populist Party fizzled out, but aspects of their platform were adopted by both Democrats and Republicans. McKinley’s election was a win for big business and marked a shift in American politics as the focus of the nation became industrialization.
Period 6
Key Terms
100th meridian: The line of longitude that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole, passing through the middle of the United States. It is significant because it roughly divides the country into two major regions, with the eastern side receiving more rainfall and suitable for agriculture, while the western side is drier and less suitable for farming.
Anti-Saloon League: A social organization that advocated for the prohibition of alcohol in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It played a significant role in the temperance movement.
Assimilationists: Individuals or groups who support the assimilation of immigrants or minority cultures into the dominant culture of a society. They believe in adopting the customs, language, and values of the dominant group.
Atlanta Compromise: A speech delivered by Booker T. Washington in 1895, which advocated for African Americans to work towards economic progress and self-improvement rather than directly challenging segregation and discrimination.
Barbed wire: A type of fencing made of wire with sharp barbs or spikes attached at regular intervals. It was widely used in the late 19th century to enclose land, particularly in the American West, and played a significant role in the closing of the open range.
Buffalo herds: Large groups of buffalo, or American bison, that once roamed the Great Plains in huge numbers. They were an important resource for Native American tribes and were hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century.
Cattle drives: The process of moving herds of cattle from ranches in the Great Plains to railroads or markets in the eastern United States. This practice was common in the late 19th century and played a crucial role in the development of the beef industry.
Chinese Exclusion Act: A federal law passed in 1882 that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States. It was the first significant law restricting immigration based on ethnicity and contributed to anti-Chinese sentiment and discrimination.
Collective bargaining: The process in which representatives of labor unions negotiate with employers on behalf of workers to determine wages, working conditions, and other employment terms.
Conservationists: Individuals or groups who advocate for the protection and preservation of natural resources and the environment. They work to prevent the excessive exploitation or harm of natural landscapes, wildlife, and ecosystems.
Consolidation: The merging or combining of multiple smaller entities into a larger, more centralized entity. In the context of the late 19th century, it often referred to the combination of smaller businesses into larger corporations or monopolies.
Consumer economy: An economic system in which a significant portion of economic activity is driven by consumer spending on goods and services. It is characterized by high levels of consumption and demand for consumer products.
Cooperatives: Organizations or businesses owned and operated by a group of individuals for their mutual benefit. Members pool their resources and work together to achieve common goals, such as purchasing goods at lower prices or sharing profits.
Credit Mobilier: A construction company that was involved in a major financial scandal in the United States during the 1870s. It was contracted to build the Union Pacific Railroad and was accused of overcharging the government and engaging in corrupt practices.
Dawes Act: A federal law passed in 1887 that aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society by dividing tribal lands into individual plots of land. The goal was to encourage private land ownership and agriculture, but it resulted in the loss of millions of acres of Native American land.
Deflation: A decrease in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time. Deflation can occur during periods of economic recession and can have negative effects on businesses and consumers.
Deforestation: The process of clearing or removing forests or trees from a land area. Deforestation can occur due to human activities such as agriculture, logging, and urbanization, and it can have significant environmental impacts, including habitat destruction and climate change.
Department store: A large retail establishment that sells a wide variety of products, including clothing, household goods, and furniture, under one roof. Department stores offer a range of services and often have multiple departments organized by product category.
Dry farming: A farming method that relies on the cultivation of crops without irrigation in regions with limited rainfall or water availability. Dry farming techniques include planting drought-resistant crops, conserving soil moisture, and using mulch to reduce evaporation.
Forest Reserve Act: A federal law passed in 1891 that authorized the President of the United States to set aside public lands as forest reserves. This was an important step towards the conservation and preservation of natural resources in the United States.
Forest Management Act: A federal law passed in 1897 that provided guidelines for the sustainable management and use of forest resources. It aimed to balance the economic and environmental needs of forests and established the foundation for modern forest management practices.
Ghost Dance Movement: A religious movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century. It involved ceremonial dances and prayers aimed at restoring ancestral lands, reviving traditional culture, and resisting the encroachment of white settlers.
"Gospel of Wealth": An essay written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889, in which he argued that wealthy individuals have a responsibility to use their wealth for the benefit of society. Carnegie advocated for philanthropy and the redistribution of wealth through charitable donations.
Grandfather clauses: Legal provisions that allowed individuals to be exempt from certain requirements or restrictions based on previous conditions or circumstances. In the context of voting rights, grandfather clauses were used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to disenfranchise African Americans by exempting whites from literacy tests or property ownership requirements if their ancestors had voted before the Civil War.
Granger laws: A series of state laws passed in the late 19th century by the Grange, a farmers' organization. These laws regulated railroad and grain elevator rates and aimed to protect farmers from unfair business practices.
Great American Desert: A term used in the 19th century to describe the western region of the United States, particularly the Great Plains, as an arid and barren land unsuitable for agriculture. This perception was later challenged by the success of dry farming techniques.
Great Plains: A vast region of flat grassland that extends across the central part of North America, covering parts of the United States and Canada. The Great Plains were home to numerous Native American tribes and played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States.
Holding company: A type of business organization that owns and controls other companies by holding a majority of their stock or shares. Holding companies are often created to manage and oversee a diverse range of subsidiaries or affiliated companies.
Homestead Act: A federal law passed in 1862 that provided eligible settlers with up to 160 acres of public land in exchange for a small fee and a commitment to improve the land by building a dwelling and cultivating crops. The Homestead Act played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States.
Impressionism: A style of art that emerged in the late 19th century, primarily in France. Impressionist artists sought to capture the fleeting effects of light and color in their paintings, using loose brushwork and emphasizing the subjective experience of the viewer.
Indian Reorganization Act: A federal law passed in 1934 that aimed to reverse assimilationist policies towards Native Americans and promote self-governance and cultural preservation. The act encouraged Native American tribes to establish their own governments and provided funding for economic development and social programs.
International Migration Society: This term does not refer to a specific historical entity or organization. However, it likely refers to the general phenomenon of international migration, which involves the movement of people across national borders to settle in a new country.
Jazz: A genre of music that originated in African American communities in the early 20th century. Jazz is characterized by improvisation, syncopated rhythms, and a combination of African and European musical traditions. It has had a significant influence on popular music and cultural expression.
Jim Crow laws: Racial segregation laws that were enforced in the Southern United States from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. These laws mandated the separation of white and African American individuals in public spaces, schools, transportation, and other aspects of daily life.
Laissez-faire: A French term that translates to "let do" or "let it be." In an economic context, laissez-faire refers to the belief in minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing individuals and businesses to operate with little regulation. It is associated with free-market capitalism.
Literacy tests: Tests administered to potential voters to assess their ability to read and write. In the United States, literacy tests were used as a means to disenfranchise African Americans and other minority groups during the era of Jim Crow laws.
Little Big Horn: Also known as the Battle of the Little Bighorn, it was a significant conflict between the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the United States Army in 1876. The Native American forces, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, achieved a major victory over the U.S. Army's 7th Cavalry Regiment.
Lynch mobs: Vigilante groups or mobs that carried out extrajudicial acts of violence, particularly against African Americans, during the era of Jim Crow laws. Lynch mobs would often hang, torture, or kill individuals without a fair trial or legal process.
Kodak camera: The Kodak camera, invented by George Eastman in the late 19th century, was one of the first portable cameras that made photography accessible to the general public. The Kodak camera popularized the use of roll film and helped to revolutionize the field of photography.
Mail-order: A method of shopping in which customers could order products through mail catalogs and have them delivered by mail. Mail-order catalogs became popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, offering a wide range of products for rural and remote customers.
Mass media: Forms of communication, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the internet, that reach a large audience. Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, disseminating information, and influencing popular culture.
"Melting pot": A metaphor used to describe a society in which people from different cultures, ethnicities, and backgrounds blend together to form a unified whole. The term is often used to describe the cultural diversity and assimilation in countries such as the United States.
Menlo Park: A location in New Jersey where Thomas Edison established his research laboratory in the late 19th century. Menlo Park is often referred to as the birthplace of modern industrial research and development, as Edison and his team made numerous inventions and technological advancements there.
Middlemen: Individuals or businesses that operate between producers and consumers in a supply chain. Middlemen facilitate the exchange of goods, services, or information, often adding value through activities such as distribution, marketing, and logistics.
Monopoly: A situation in which a single company or entity has exclusive control over the supply of a particular product or service in a market. Monopolies can limit competition, control prices, and potentially harm consumer choice.
Munn v. Illinois: A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in 1877 that upheld the power of state governments to regulate certain industries, particularly those that are in the public interest. The case involved the regulation of grain elevator rates by the state of Illinois.
National Grange Movement: Also known as the Grange, it was a farmers' organization founded in 1867. The National Grange Movement aimed to improve the economic and social conditions of farmers through education, cooperative efforts, and political advocacy.
Ocala Platform: A set of political goals and principles adopted by the Populist Party at its convention in Ocala, Florida, in 1890. The Ocala Platform called for a range of reforms, including the regulation of railroads, the adoption of a graduated income tax, and the establishment of a national currency.
Otis elevator: An elevator company founded by Elisha Otis in the mid-19th century. Otis Elevator Company is known for its invention of the safety elevator, which included a mechanism to prevent the elevator from falling in case of a cable failure. Otis elevators revolutionized vertical transportation and made the construction of skyscrapers possible.
Philanthropy: The practice of donating money, resources, or time to support charitable causes and improve the well-being of others. Philanthropy often involves the funding of social, educational, cultural, or environmental initiatives.
Plessy vs. Ferguson: A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. The decision in Plessy v. Ferguson allowed for the implementation of Jim Crow laws and maintained racial segregation in public facilities.
Poll taxes: Taxes imposed on individuals as a requirement for voting. Poll taxes were used in the United States as a means to disenfranchise African Americans and other minority groups, as they often targeted lower-income individuals who could not afford to pay the tax.
Populists: Members of the Populist Party, a political party in the late 19th century that advocated for the interests of farmers, laborers, and the working class. Populists called for reforms to address economic inequality, including the regulation of big business, currency reform, and the expansion of democracy.
Preservationists: Individuals or groups who advocate for the protection and conservation of natural and cultural resources. Preservationists work to safeguard historic buildings, landscapes, and landmarks to ensure their long-term preservation and cultural significance.
Salvation Army: A Christian charitable organization founded in 1865 that provides social services and aid to those in need, including food assistance, shelter, addiction recovery programs, and disaster relief. The Salvation Army operates in many countries worldwide.
Santa Fe Trail: A historic trade route that stretched from Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico, in the 19th century. The Santa Fe Trail was an important commercial and transportation route, facilitating trade between the United States and Mexico.
Settlement houses: Community centers or social welfare institutions that were established in urban areas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Settlement houses provided various services to immigrants and low-income residents, including education, healthcare, childcare, and social support.
Sierra Club: An environmental organization founded in 1892 that advocates for the protection and preservation of natural resources and ecosystems. The Sierra Club is one of the oldest and largest environmental organizations in the United States and has played a significant role in environmental activism and conservation efforts.
Skyscrapers: Tall buildings with multiple floors that are constructed using a steel or reinforced concrete framework. Skyscrapers emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of advances in engineering and construction techniques. They often serve as symbols of urbanization and modernity.
Social Darwinism: A social theory that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. Social Darwinism applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to human society, suggesting that the wealthy and powerful are naturally selected and that social progress is driven by competition.
Social Gospel: A religious movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasizing the application of Christian principles to address social issues and promote social justice. Social Gospel advocates believed in addressing poverty, inequality, and other social problems through charitable work, political activism, and social reform.
Spectator sports: Sports events or competitions that are primarily watched by an audience rather than actively participated in. Spectator sports gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, becoming a form of entertainment and a way to bring communities together.
Streetcar suburbs: Residential areas or neighborhoods located on the outskirts of cities that were connected to the urban core by streetcar lines. Streetcar suburbs emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as transportation systems improved, allowing people to live outside the congested city centers while still having access to urban amenities.
Subways: Underground or elevated railway systems that provide public transportation in urban areas. Subways, also known as metros or undergrounds, were developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a solution to urban congestion and have since become a common feature in many major cities worldwide.
Tammany Hall: A powerful political organization and Democratic Party machine that operated in New York City from the late 18th century to the early 20th century. Tammany Hall played a major role in New York City politics, using patronage and political influence to control city government and secure votes.
Telephone: A device used for transmitting sound and speech over long distances. The telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in the late 19th century and revolutionized communication by allowing people to speak to one another over great distances.
Temperance: The movement to promote moderation or abstinence from the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The temperance movement gained strength in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading to the eventual passage of Prohibition in the United States.
Tenant farmers: Agricultural workers who rent land from a landowner and pay for the use of the land by providing a portion of their crops or income. Tenant farming was common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in rural areas, and often involved sharecropping arrangements.
Tenement housing: Multi-story apartment buildings, typically in urban areas, that were overcrowded and offered poor living conditions. Tenement housing was prevalent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in industrial cities, and housed many immigrant and low-income families.
Transatlantic cable: A cable laid across the floor of the Atlantic Ocean to enable telegraph communication between North America and Europe. The first successful transatlantic cable was completed in 1866 and greatly facilitated international communication and commerce.
Transcontinental railroad: A railroad line that spans a continent, connecting one coast to another. The first transcontinental railroad in the United States was completed in 1869, linking the eastern and western coasts and facilitating transportation and trade across the country.
Trust: A legal and financial arrangement in which a group of companies or corporations transfer their stocks and assets to a board of trustees, who manage and control the consolidated entity. Trusts were a form of corporate consolidation and often led to the creation of monopolies.
Tuskegee Institute: A historically black college and vocational school founded by Booker T. Washington in 1881 in Tuskegee, Alabama. The Tuskegee Institute provided education and vocational training to African Americans, emphasizing practical skills and agricultural education.
Vaqueros: Skilled horsemen and cattle herders of Mexican origin who played a significant role in the ranching industry of the American West. Vaqueros were known for their expertise in working with cattle and their distinctive style of horsemanship.
"White collar" workers: A term used to describe individuals who work in professional, managerial, or administrative occupations, typically in offices or other non-manual labor settings. "White collar" workers are often associated with higher levels of education and perform tasks that require knowledge or specialized skills.
White supremacists: Individuals or groups who believe in and promote the ideology of white supremacy, which asserts the superiority of the white race over other racial or ethnic groups. White supremacists advocate for policies and actions that discriminate against or oppress non-white individuals or communities.
Yellowstone: The first national park established in the United States and widely considered the first national park in the world. Yellowstone National Park, located primarily in Wyoming, but also extending into Montana and Idaho, is known for its geothermal features, wildlife, and natural beauty.
Yosemite: A national park located in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range. Yosemite National Park is renowned for its stunning granite cliffs, waterfalls, and ancient sequoia trees. It is a popular destination for outdoor recreation, including hiking, rock climbing, and camping.
Key People
Jane Addams: A social reformer and activist who co-founded Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago. Jane Addams was a leading figure in the Progressive Era and advocated for social justice, women's suffrage, and the improvement of living conditions for immigrants and the working class.
Horatio Alger: A 19th-century American author known for his "rags-to-riches" stories that depicted young protagonists who achieved success through hard work, perseverance, and moral character. Alger's novels were popular and influential in promoting the American Dream and the idea of upward mobility.
Susan B. Anthony: A prominent suffragist and women's rights advocate who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement in the United States. Susan B. Anthony tirelessly campaigned for women's right to vote and worked towards achieving gender equality.
Barnum & Bailey: A famous American circus company founded by P.T. Barnum and James A. Bailey in the 19th century. Barnum & Bailey Circus was known for its extravagant performances, including acrobatics, animal acts, and sideshows, and toured extensively in the United States and around the world.
Alexander Graham Bell: An inventor, scientist, and teacher of the deaf who is credited with inventing the telephone. Alexander Graham Bell's invention revolutionized communication and laid the foundation for the development of the telecommunications industry.
Edward Bellamy: An American author and social reformer best known for his utopian novel "Looking Backward: 2000-1887." Published in 1888, the novel presented a vision of a future society that has achieved social and economic equality through a planned economy.
Henry Bessemer: An English engineer and inventor who developed the Bessemer process, a method for mass-producing steel. Henry Bessemer's invention significantly reduced the cost of steel production, making it more accessible and contributing to the growth of industrialization.
William Jennings Bryan: An American politician and orator who served as a U.S. Congressman and Secretary of State. William Jennings Bryan is best known for his role in the Populist and Democratic parties and his famous "Cross of Gold" speech, which advocated for the use of silver as a monetary standard.
"Buffalo Bill": The nickname of William F. Cody, an American soldier, buffalo hunter, and showman who founded Buffalo Bill's Wild West, a popular traveling show that showcased performances of cowboy skills, Native American culture, and reenactments of historical events.
Andrew Carnegie: A Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist who became one of the wealthiest individuals in history through his leadership in the steel industry. Andrew Carnegie is known for his philanthropic efforts, including the funding of libraries, educational institutions, and cultural organizations.
George Washington Carver: An African American scientist, botanist, and inventor who made significant contributions to agricultural science. George Washington Carver's research focused on crop rotation, soil conservation, and the development of uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, and other crops, promoting sustainable farming practices.
Mary Cassatt: An American painter and printmaker associated with the Impressionist movement. Mary Cassatt is known for her depictions of women and children, often capturing intimate and domestic scenes with a focus on light, color, and brushwork.
Grover Cleveland: The 22nd and 24th President of the United States, serving non-consecutive terms. Grover Cleveland is known for his commitment to fiscal conservatism, limited government, and his opposition to political corruption.
Stephen Crane: An American writer and journalist who is considered one of the most significant figures in American literature. Stephen Crane's works, including the novel "The Red Badge of Courage," often depicted the harsh realities of war and the human condition.
Clarence Darrow: An American lawyer and leading figure in the Progressive Era and the labor movement. Clarence Darrow is known for his defense work in several high-profile trials, including the Scopes "Monkey" Trial, where he argued for the teaching of evolution in schools.
Eugene V. Debs: An American labor leader and socialist who co-founded the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and served as its president. Eugene V. Debs was a prominent advocate for workers' rights, organized labor, and social justice.
Theodore Dreiser: An American novelist and journalist known for his realistic and often controversial portrayals of urban life and the struggles of individuals in society. Theodore Dreiser's works, including "Sister Carrie" and "An American Tragedy," explored themes of ambition, desire, and the corrupting influences of society.
W. E. B. Du Bois: An African American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). W. E. B. Du Bois was a leading figure in the fight for racial equality and justice, advocating for the rights of African Americans through his writings and activism.
Thomas Eakins: An American realist painter, photographer, and sculptor who is considered one of the most important artists in American history. Thomas Eakins depicted everyday life, often focusing on the human figure and capturing the complexities and nuances of his subjects.
Thomas Edison: An American inventor and businessman who is widely regarded as one of the greatest inventors in history. Thomas Edison is credited with developing many devices that had a profound impact on modern life, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the practical electric light bulb.
Richard T. Ely: An American economist and sociologist who was a leading figure in the Progressive Era and a proponent of social and economic reform. Richard T. Ely advocated for government intervention in the economy, labor rights, and social justice issues.
Henry George: An American economist and social reformer who advocated for a single tax on land in order to solve social inequality and poverty. Henry George's book "Progress and Poverty" became a bestseller and influenced economic and social thinkers of the time.
James Gibbons: An American Catholic cardinal who served as Archbishop of Baltimore. James Gibbons was a prominent figure in the Catholic Church in the United States and advocated for social justice, labor rights, and religious freedom.
Joseph Glidden: An American farmer and inventor who is credited with patenting the modern design for barbed wire. Joseph Glidden's invention revolutionized the farming industry and played a significant role in the development of the American West.
Samuel Gompers: An English-born American labor leader and the first president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Samuel Gompers played a crucial role in the labor movement and fought for the rights of workers, including higher wages, shorter hours, and improved working conditions.
Jay Gould: An American railroad magnate and financier who was one of the most powerful and controversial figures in the Gilded Age. Jay Gould was involved in numerous business ventures, including railroads and telegraph companies, and was known for his aggressive and often unethical business practices.
Henry Grady: An American journalist and orator who played a significant role in the New South movement after the Civil War. Henry Grady advocated for industrialization, economic development, and reconciliation between the North and South.
Mark Hanna: An American businessman and Republican politician who was a key figure in the political machine and served as the campaign manager for President William McKinley. Mark Hanna was known for his skill in fundraising and organizing political campaigns.
William Randolph Hearst: An American newspaper publisher and media magnate who built the nation's largest newspaper chain and pioneered yellow journalism. William Randolph Hearst's newspapers, including the New York Journal and San Francisco Examiner, had a significant influence on public opinion and politics.
Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.: An American jurist and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. is known for his influential legal opinions, particularly in the areas of civil liberties, free speech, and the role of the judiciary.
Winslow Homer: An American painter and printmaker known for his marine and landscape paintings. Winslow Homer's artwork often depicted scenes of nature and outdoor life, and he is considered one of the greatest American painters of the 19th century.
Helen Hunt Jackson: An American poet, writer, and activist who advocated for the rights and welfare of Native Americans. Helen Hunt Jackson's book "A Century of Dishonor" exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans by the United States government and called for reforms.
Scott Joplin: An African American composer and pianist who was one of the most influential figures in the development of ragtime music. Scott Joplin's compositions, including "Maple Leaf Rag" and "The Entertainer," popularized ragtime and had a lasting impact on American music.
William McKinley: The 25th President of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. William McKinley's presidency was marked by economic prosperity and the Spanish-American War, during which the United States acquired territories such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
Dwight Moody: An American evangelist and preacher who played a significant role in the revivalist movement of the late 19th century. Dwight Moody founded the Moody Bible Institute and was known for his dynamic preaching style and emphasis on personal conversion and Christian faith.
JP Morgan: An American financier and banker who was one of the most powerful figures in the Gilded Age. J.P. Morgan dominated corporate finance and played a major role in the development of industrial and transportation companies, including General Electric and U.S. Steel.
Jelly Roll Morton: An American jazz pianist, bandleader, and composer who was one of the pioneers of early jazz. Jelly Roll Morton's compositions and piano playing helped shape the development of jazz music in the early 20th century.
John Muir: A Scottish-American naturalist, author, and advocate for the preservation of wilderness areas. John Muir played a crucial role in the establishment of Yosemite National Park and was a co-founder of the Sierra Club, an environmental organization dedicated to protecting natural landscapes.
Carrie A. Nation: An American temperance advocate and activist who fought against the consumption of alcohol. Carrie A. Nation gained notoriety for her violent and destructive methods, including smashing up saloons with a hatchet, as she believed alcohol was a major cause of social and moral problems.
Frederick Law Olmsted: An American landscape architect who is considered the father of American landscape architecture. Frederick Law Olmsted designed many famous urban parks, including Central Park in New York City, and his designs emphasized the importance of natural beauty and public access to green spaces.
Joseph Pulitzer: A Hungarian-born American newspaper publisher and journalist who established the Pulitzer Prizes, which are awarded annually for achievements in journalism, literature, and music. Joseph Pulitzer owned the New York World newspaper and played a significant role in the development of modern journalism.
Walter Rauschenbusch: An American theologian and Baptist minister who was a leading figure in the Social Gospel movement. Walter Rauschenbusch advocated for social justice, labor rights, and the application of Christian teachings to address social and economic issues.
Henry Hobson Richardson: An American architect known for his influential work in the 19th century. Henry Hobson Richardson's architectural designs, characterized by their use of heavy stone, Romanesque arches, and complex massing, had a significant impact on American architecture.
John D. Rockefeller: An American business magnate and philanthropist who was one of the wealthiest individuals in history. John D. Rockefeller co-founded the Standard Oil Company and played a major role in the development of the oil industry, as well as in philanthropic endeavors.
John Philip Sousa: An American composer and conductor known as the "March King" for his popular marches, including "The Stars and Stripes Forever." John Philip Sousa's music became synonymous with American patriotism and military bands.
Louis Sullivan: An American architect often referred to as the "father of modernism" in architecture. Louis Sullivan is known for his innovative and influential designs, including the use of steel frames and the concept of "form follows function."
William Graham Sumner: An American sociologist and economist who was a prominent advocate of social Darwinism. William Graham Sumner believed in the survival of the fittest in society and opposed government intervention in the economy and social issues.
Gustavus Swift: An American entrepreneur and pioneer of the meatpacking industry. Gustavus Swift revolutionized the meat industry by developing the first practical system for transporting and refrigerating meat on a large scale, which led to the growth of the Chicago meatpacking industry.
Frederick Jackson Turner: An American historian who is best known for his "Frontier Thesis," which argued that the frontier played a major role in shaping American democracy and individualism. Frederick Jackson Turner's ideas had a profound influence on the study of American history.
Mark Twain: The pen name of Samuel Clemens, an American writer and humorist best known for his novels "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn." Mark Twain's works captured the spirit of American life in the 19th century and often satirized social and political issues.
Cornelius Vanderbilt: An American business magnate and philanthropist who built his fortune in the shipping and railroad industries. Cornelius Vanderbilt was one of the wealthiest individuals in American history and played a major role in the development of transportation and commerce.
Booker T. Washington: An African American educator, author, and civil rights leader who was the founder of the Tuskegee Institute. Booker T. Washington advocated for vocational education and economic self-sufficiency as a means of achieving racial equality and social progress.
Thomas Watson: An American businessman and politician who co-founded the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) and served as its president. Thomas Watson played a key role in the development of IBM into a major technology company.
Ida B. Wells: An African American journalist, suffragist, and civil rights activist who led an anti-lynching campaign in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Ida B. Wells was a prominent voice against racial injustice and advocated for the rights of African Americans and women.
George Westinghouse: An American inventor, engineer, and industrialist who played a major role in the development of the electrical industry. George Westinghouse's inventions and innovations, including the alternating current (AC) system, had a significant impact on the modern electrical power distribution.
James McNeill Whistler: An American-born artist and influential figure in the Aesthetic movement. James McNeill Whistler's paintings, such as "Whistler's Mother" and his Nocturne series, were known for their harmonious color palettes and subtle atmospheres.
Frances E. Willard: An American educator, women's suffrage leader, and social reformer who was the president of the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). Frances E. Willard advocated for women's rights, temperance, and social welfare reforms.
Frank Lloyd Wright: An American architect and designer who was one of the most prominent figures in modern architecture. Frank Lloyd Wright's innovative designs, characterized by open floor plans, integration with natural surroundings, and use of organic materials, had a profound influence on architectural styles.
Page updated
Report abuse