Period 3

Learning Objectives:

Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity.
Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War).
Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War.
Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution.
Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution.
Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society.
Describe the global impact of the American Revolution.
Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.
Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.
Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution.
Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.
Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.
Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800.
Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.
Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800.
Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800.

The Seven Years War

(a.k.a. The French & Indian War)

Wars Before the Seven Years War

The monarchs of Europe spend more time warring against each other than they ever do being at peace. Rivalries run deep and stretch back to the birth of most countries. As such, several key conflicts preceded the Seven Years War:

King William’s War (1689-1697): British try and fail to capture Quebec from France, who was supported by several American Indian tribes
Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713): Britain gains Nova Scotia from France & trading rights in Spanish America
King George’s War (1744-1748): Britain gains more power in India in exchange for returning a fort they took from France

In these wars, most of the fighting was done in Europe, even though the disputed land was in North America. The British relied heavily on amateur colonial forces, seeing little need to send their own troops to the Americas.

Another War on the Horizon

Now that Britain and France recognized the great value of their colonies, they are more determined than ever to keep and expand them. France had fewer settlers, but extensive alliances with Native American tribes through the fur trade. Britain had over a million colonists in North America, producing key crops like wheat, tobacco, and lumber.

Both countries had competing interests in the Ohio River Valley. While attempting to convince the Iroquois Confederacy to help in this cause, several delegates from the various colonies were brought in. One such delegate was Benjamin Franklin, who proposed a colonial alliance known as the Albany Plan of Union which would allow for issues of frontier defense, territorial expansion, and trade to be discussed among representatives of each colony. This plan angered the Native Americans, who were not considered in the proposal, and was outright rejected by the British, who feared united colonies would undermine their power. Although it did not achieve its goals, this meeting established new bonds of comradery among colonial leaders which would prove helpful in the future.

War Breaks Out

Preparing for an eminent attack, the French started to build forts to discourage British expansion. The British sent a small militia led by George Washington to halt the progress of one such fort - Fort Duquesne. Each side claims the others' actions as the start of the conflict known as the Seven Years War (or the French & Indian War, as it is called in North America). Although he was victorious at first, Washington was forced to surrender to the French and their Native American allies on July 3rd, 1754. The larger, well-trained French and Indian troops overpowered Washington’s small armed forces.

Despite having fewer colonists than their British opponents, the French relied on the Native American allies and their guerilla tactics to compensate for their military disadvantages. This allowed the French to win several early victories and capture key forts in British territory.

Peace at a Cost

After several years of fighting and trading victories, King George entered into peace negotiations with France in 1762. Their meeting (the Peace of Paris) ended with Great Britain acquiring French Canada and Spanish Florida. With the Treaty of Paris of 1763, Britain became the dominant power in both Europe and North America.

Although the war was over, it left a series of unresolved conflicts in its wake.

French lost all power in the North American continent, and their Native American allies were left to fend for themselves against the encroaching colonists.
Throughout the war, colonists were forced to open their homes and hand over supplies to British troops. Many colonists in port cities were forcibly enlisted (impressment) into the Royal Navy. These actions united the colonists in their shared (and growing) discontentment with British authority.
One of the few incentives for colonists to see the British win the war was to gain access to territories west of the Appalachian mountains. However, fearful of attacks from angry Native Americans, Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, banning colonists from expanding into their newly conquered territory.
Like all wars, the Seven Years War was expensive, and it was the belief of the citizens and government of Britain that the weight of that expense should fall on the colonists through heavy taxation.
- This caused a shift in how the American colonists and British viewed each other. A shift that would incite rebellion...

Road to Revolution

End to Salutary Neglect

For much of their time in America, the British government left the colonists alone and allowed them limited self-government. This policy, known as salutary neglect, relaxed supervision of internal colonial affairs as long as they continued to produce sufficient raw materials and revenue. This freedom caused many colonists to see free trade, domestic manufacturing, and local self-government as rights, not privileges. So when the British government tried to regain control and put an end to salutary neglect, the colonists felt as though their freedoms were being stripped from them, and resistance. Each time they resisted, however, Britain sought more power and control over them to bring them in line.

To the king and his Parliament, asserting more control over the American colonies was not only necessary, but their right. Facing an economic crisis after the Seven Years War, and an unhappy population at home who were resentful of heavy taxes funding colonial battles, they decided to shift the burden of their debt to the American colonists, which they do through a series of taxes. These taxes are protested, some violently so, as the colonists stop seeing themselves as subjects, and instead as enlightened people capable of governing themselves.

The Boston Massacre

A group of angry colonists started throwing snowballs, rocks, and oyster shells at British officers guarding the Customs House. In fear, British soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five colonists. Despite only enduring a handful of casualties, this incident was labeled “The Boston Massacre” and was seen as an act of war, inspiring many colonists to rebel.

The Boston Tea Party

Although the Tea Act was meant to make tea cheaper, the colonists protested the act. Some colonists went as far as to dress as Native Americans, board a ship in Boston Harbor carrying tea, and dump it all into the sea. Thousands of dollars of merchandise washed away with this act of rebellion known as “The Boston Tea Party”.

Uniting for Change

Although there were hundreds of witnesses to the Boston Tea Party, no one would come forward to provide names of those who participated. Angry with the colonists’ actions, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts of 1774 to punish the people of Massachusetts and discourage others from protesting. Adding insult to injury, Parliament also passed the Quebec Act, extending the boundary of Quebec into the Ohio River Valley, preventing colonists from settling there and established a government without a representative assembly. Nicknamed the “Intolerable Acts”, the colonists of Boston lost their harbor, their government, and their power in one fell swoop, and other colonists feared this was only the beginning of their loss of liberty.

As Britain sought to seize control and money from the American colonies, the colonists began to resist. Among these were patriots, a growing number of colonists who favored the idea of independence from Britain.

Committees of correspondence: circulation of news and information to colonial leaders regarding British policies
Vox Populi, Sons of Liberty & Daughters of Liberty: groups formed to repeal the Stamp Act and protest further tyranny
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense: a pamphlet widely-distributed throughout the colonies that provided a rational defense for the pursuit of independence
The first Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in response to the Intolerable Acts. The second convened to question the possibility of revolution.

The American Revolution was a perfect storm in many ways. The rebirth of classical literature and learning from the Renaissance spilled into the quest for reason and personal growth of the Enlightenment, all happening while the world is expanding and sharing new ideas, practices, and ways of life.

Deism: Belief in a supreme being, but no affiliation with any particular text or church
Rationalism: the belief that decisions, opinions, and actions should be based in logical reasoning, not faith or feeling
Social Contract: the idea that government should come from the people seeking equality/liberty and that it is the government’s responsibility to care for its citizens and if it fails to do so, it is the responsibility and obligation of those citizens to fix the government

Declaring Independence

Although many were in favor of splitting off from Britain, others feared this venture. How do you build a government, a country, from scratch? Like most of those in abusive relationships, colonials leaders often highlighted the benefits of being loyal to Britain, while ignoring their recent wrongs. At first, the Continental Congress focused on maintaining peace and getting more representation in Parliament - the Olive Branch Petition. In response, King George dismissed their pleas and passed more acts to punish the colonists for their rebellion. The leaders of the Continental Congress were told to immediately disband, or else be guilty of treason and hanged.

As time went on and Britain continued their oppression, more and more colonists were convinced that revolution was the only way to guarantee their freedom. Highly debated and revised multiple times before being signed, the Declaration of Independence officially signified the colonies’ separation from Great Britain and was made public on July 4, 1776.

The American Revolution

A Long & Bitter Struggle

The British, who expected the war to be over within a few months, were dismayed when those months turned into years. The Americans struggled at beginning of the war, losing key battles and suffering heavy losses. The Continental Army, first formed by the Second Continental Congress to defend the colonists from British hostilities, only remained intact because of the leadership of George Washington. His commitment to the cause of freedom and stoicism in the face of adversity earned him the respect of his men and kept them fighting through famine, frost, and disease.

Patriots

Roughly 40% of colonists actively joined the fight against Britain, most from Virginia & New England
Most American soldiers fought in local militias close to home
Undersupplied, poorly trained, and rarely paid for their service, maintaining a standing army to take on the British was difficult.
Their strengths were their knowledge of the terrain and a commitment to their cause - independence.

Loyalists

Roughly 25% of colonists (mostly from New Jersey & Georgia), supported by the British royal forces
The British army much larger and is supplied by both the king and those loyal to him. They are expertly trained, but as the war drags on, these soldiers are less dedicated to the fight to hang on the the colonies.

The Soldiers No One Mentions

African-Americans

Offered their freedom in exchange for military service, hundreds of African slaves enlisted on both sides, fighting in mixed race units.

Native Americans

At first, Native Americans wanted no part in the revolution. Eventually, they saw a better chance of preserving their lands by helping the British.

Women

Before the war, women organized protests and boycotts. During the war, they made sure troops were supplied, fed, and kept healthy. Some were even employed as spies. A few disguised themselves as men to fight for their country.

The Treaty of Paris (1783)

Following their surrender at Yorktown, Parliament was forced to reconsider their involvement in the Revolutionary war. With the French backing American colonists, Spain and France fighting them in Europe, and the British citizens unhappy with the great cost of the war effort, they begrudgingly agreed to negotiate peace terms. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the revolution and established the following:

Britain would recognize the independence of the United States
The western most boundary of the new US would be the Mississippi River
Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada
Americans would pay any existing debts to British merchants and return land confiscated from Loyalists

Aftermath

Making Changes

Now free of British power and influence, the citizens of the new United States had the opportunity to establish their own identity. While aspects of their countries of origin remained, many changes were made to establish a uniquely American identity.

End of the aristocracy
Separation of church & state
Development of political parties
Circulation of newspapers & active political discussion
Celebration of patriotism through art and literature
Development of American English

Revolution Spreads

The spread of Enlightenment ideals and the success of the American Revolution encouraged others to challenge the status quo and fight for their rights, though the results varied…

French Revolution: Inspired by their helping Americans overthrow the British, the French had their own revolution. After years of oppression followed by excessive taxation due to the monarchy’s luxurious lifestyle, the people rebelled. This rebellion ended with the king and queen executed, a period of chaos known as the Reign of Terror, and then settling for Napoleon.
Haitian Revolution: During the chaos in France, slavery was abolished in the country but not its colonies. When word reached the island of Hispaniola, the slaves (who outnumbered the whites 10 to 1) revolted. Independence was won in 1804 and the island was renamed Haiti.
Latin American Revolutions: The Spanish caste system barred creoles from public office, despite the fact many were educated and would have more rights back in Europe. A series of revolutions against France and Spain led to the creation of new independent nations, including Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, and Ecuador.

Building a New Nation

Following their victory and independence, the patriots were faced with the daunting task of establishing a new government. During the war, states established their own constitutions with the leaders of the Constitutional Convention serving as a de facto central government so they could function while at war with Britain. Now that the war was over, they needed a new national system of government. Of course, there were lots of opinions on how the new United States would operate, and coming to a decision took months of debate and compromise. Their decision was the Articles of Confederation - a plan for a national government in which states held more power than the central government. Ultimately, this plan fails and is replaced by the Constitution.

The Problems with the Articles

The Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress is 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification (approval). This government was established to maximize individual power and states rights, but it was not conducive to effectively running the nation.

Unicameral legislature (Congress) with one vote per state
- Power to wage war
- Send diplomats
- Borrow money
Amendment to the Articles required unanimous approval
No tax collection or regulation of commerce at the national level

Despite its various weaknesses, the Articles of Confederation did provide a government structure that was able to withstand the revolution and negotiate terms for peace with their previous overlords. It also helped establish guidelines for settling the newly acquired western territory through the Land Ordinance of 1785 (policy for surveying/selling lands, required towns to provide schools) & the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (limited self-government and rules for applying for statehood).

Unfortunately, these accomplishments did not overshadow the problems with the Articles of Confederation. With no tax collection. America couldn’t repay their debts from the war (losing the respect of the nations of Europe) and they didn’t have the credit needed to participate in trade. Furthermore, giving the states more power than the central government caused division and rivalry among the states. When rebellions broke out to protest state actions, there was no federal government to protect them.

Plans & Proposals

Following Shays Rebellion, the leaders of the new United States recognized the need to reframe the government if it was going to stand the test of time. George Washington himself invited leaders to discuss options at his home in Mount Vernon, which lead to another meeting in Annapolis. At the Annapolis Convention they discussed ways to improve commercial relations and suggested a second convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. While only 5 states sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention, all states (except Rhode Island) were represented at the Constitutional Convention.

Although everyone agreed the Articles were inefficient, figuring out how to come up with a new government that recognized the need for central control while also guaranteeing the rights they so desperately fought for was an enormous challenge. Topics of debate included:

Separation of powers
Checks & balances
Determining representation equally
Slavery
Regulation of trade
Establishing leaders

Different people put forth various plans to promote individual liberties while also protecting their state's best interests.

Virginia Plan: introduced a strong central government, a bicameral legislature, and a system of representation based on population
New Jersey Plan: recognizing the need for small states to have equal representation, this plan proposed a unicameral legislature with all states having equal votes
3/5ths Compromise: including each enslaved person as 3/5ths of a person when determining a state’s population for representation
Electoral college: a group of electors who vote in the formal election of the president and vice-president after general election votes are tallied

Federalists

Led by Alexander Hamilton & James Madison
Supported ratification of the Constitution
Recognized the need for a strong central government
Emphasized the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
Garnered support through the distribution of well-crafted informational flyers outlining the benefits of the new government (Federalist Papers)

Anti-Federalists

Led by Patrick Henry & Thomas Jefferson
Opposed ratification of the Constitution
Feared that a strong central government would limit individual liberties and overturn the democracy they fought so hard for
Advocated for a Bill of Rights to protect basic freedoms (compromise granted if they agreed to ratify)
Supported by those who distrusted the government after past trauma

"If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary."

“Show me that age and country where the rights and liberties of the people were placed on the sole chance of their rulers being good men, without a consequent loss of liberty?”

The Constitution

The final agreement, known as the Constitution, was ratified in 1788. The purpose was to establish the framework for the governance of the United States and to ensure the protection of individual rights and liberties. It outlines the structure of the federal government, including the three branches – legislative, executive, and judicial – and defines their powers and responsibilities. The Constitution also lays out the process for amending itself to adapt to changing circumstances, as it is a living document the Founding Fathers believed should be continually revised. Known as "the supreme law of the land", it enshrines the principles of limited government, the rule of law, and the protection of fundamental rights for all citizens.

Those Not Included in the New United States

African Americans

Despite their service and sacrifice, African Americans were still not considered equals. While the importation of slaves had been abolished by the Continental Congress and many of the Founding Fathers disagreed with the practice of slavery, they did not include African Americans citizens in their new republic.

Native Americans

Having won a great deal of land as part of their independence, Americans flooded west, with little regard for the Native Americans who lived there. Racism, greed, and overall dislike for the natives (most of whom sided with the British) led to continuous conflict as America expanded its borders.

Women

Fueled by patriotism, the victorious Americans wanted to revel in their triumph and ensure whatever legacy they left behind was a lasting one. One aspect of this came in the form of the Republic Motherhood, a movement for women to take a more active role in educating their children on the values of the new country and raise them to be good citizens. Despite this expectation, women were still considered second-class citizens, and not given the equality many of them had worked for and now taught their children to honor.

A New Republic

Here Comes the General!

Once the Constitution was ratified and the first members of Congress was elected, everyone assumed George Washington would be unanimously elected the country’s first president, and he was! After taking office in April of 1789, he and his Cabinet, or the individuals who would serve as advisors while overseeing specific departments to help him oversee the running of the young nation, got to work. His appointments, once confirmed by the Senate, included Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney General. Additionally, John Adams served as vice-president, much to his chagrin. The Constitution established the judicial branch through the Supreme Court, so the Judiciary Act of 1789 established this court with one chief justice and five associate justices, as well as, 13 district courts and 3 circuit courts for appeals.

As the first president, George Washington got to set the precedent for all who followed him, and many of his actions and work while president help set the tone for the role of commander in chief.

Proclamation of Neutrality: Inspired by the Americans, the French had their own revolution to dispose of their king and the elitist system that has subjected them to years of oppression and poverty. Despite the fact many French soldiers supported the American patriots during the revolution, Washington was afraid to plunge the new nation into war and issued a statement of neutrality.
Jay Treaty: An agreement with Britain in which they were forced to withdraw their forces from U.S. soil, but also required the U.S. to pay debts to British firms and limited trade with the British West Indies.
The Whiskey Rebellion was an uprising by western Pennsylvania farmers who led protests against the excise tax imposed on whiskey in the early 1790s. Unlike Shays Rebellion, the federal government had the power to end it, and Washington did so by mobilizing troops, thus proving the effectiveness of the Constitution.

Division in the New Republic

Among the President’s Cabinet were two men who were constantly at odds - Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton proposed a financial plan to strengthen the U.S. economy. It included the following:

Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume all war debts of the states
Protect industries who are just starting out and collect revenue while imposing high tariffs on imports to promote buying domestic
Establish a national bank for depositing government funds and printing banknotes/currency

This plan was heavily opposed by Jefferson, who resented other states having their debts paid off when Virginia had already done so. He also feared the creation of a national bank would threaten the democracy they fought so hard for. In the end, a compromise was reached. Hamilton’s plan was approved, and in exchange, the capital of the United States would be moved from Philadelphia further south along the Potomac River → Washington, D.C.

The feud between Hamilton and Jefferson extended well past Washington’s presidency, and their opposing sides formed the first political parties. The Federalists, lead by Hamilton & John Adams, advocated for a strong central government and helped draft the Constitution. The Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, feared a strong central government and wanted a strict interpretation of the Constitution to ensure the stability of their democracy. The divisions between the two groups grew over Washington’s policy of neutrality, with the Federalists supporting him and and Democratic-Republicans believing the US should support the citizens of France.

Trouble on the Frontier

Following the revolution, Americans found themselves surrounded by territory occupied by other nations, some of which would love to take over the young nation. Although the Jay Treaty forced the British to move out of US territory, they still had claims in Canada and supplied Native Americans with weapons to prevent the migration of American settlers into the newly acquired territory. Attempts were made to limit conflict, but they were not always successful:

Indian Trade & Intercourse Act: Passed on July 22, 1790, this was the first law to regulate trade between Native Americans and American citizens, in which Congress proclaimed its treaty-making policy and mandated that all interactions between Indians and non-Indians were under federal control.
Treaty of Greenville: Following the Battle of Fallen Timbers, this treaty forced American Indians in the Northwest Territory to cede (give up) vast tracts of land to the U.S.
Pinckney Treaty: Defining borders between U.S. and Spanish territory, this allowed both countries to coexist peacefully in the North American continent and gave the U.S. access to crucial ports of trade along the Mississippi River and New Orleans.

Washington Steps Down

Although he was expected by many to serve as president until his death, Washington announced he’d be retiring from the presidency at the end of his second term. This established the principle of a president only serving two terms, which was not made law until 1951. In his Farewell Address, he tried to give advice to all those who would follow in his footsteps:

Stay neutral and avoid getting involved in European affairs
Do not make permanent alliances
Do not form political parties, as they will only create division
Do not fall into sectionalism

The Next Guy

John Adams was born in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1735. A Harvard-educated lawyer, he early became identified with the patriot cause; a delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, he led in the movement for independence. He served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles during the revolution and helped negotiate the treaty of peace. Afterwards, he was minister to the Court of St. James’s, returning to be elected Vice President under George Washington. His two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for a man of his vigor, intellect, and vanity. When Washington stepped down, he took his place.

When Adams became President, the war between the French and British was causing great difficulties for the United States on the high seas and intense partisanship among contending factions within the Nation. His administration focused on France, where the ruling group had refused to receive the American envoy and had suspended commercial relations. After the XYZ affair, in which American officials refused to bribe French diplomats, Congress prepared an army and passed the Alien & Sedition Acts to frighten foreign agents out of the country and to stifle the attacks of Republican editors. These actions fractured Adams’ party (the Federalists) and lost him reelection.

Key Figures

John Adams

John Adams was a key figure in the American Revolution, a skilled diplomat, and the second President of the United States. His contributions to the formation of the nation, advocacy for individual rights, and dedication to legal and political principles have left a lasting impact on American history.

Benjamin Franklin

One of the oldest Founding Fathers, Benjamin Franklin was respected for his wit and charm. Passionate about both science and politics, Franklin was an inventor, statesmen, writer, and a dedicated patriot who made great contributions to the United States before and after the revolution.

The Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, PA)

Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father of the United States and a key figure in shaping the nation's early government and financial system, serving as a soldier in the Revolution, an aide to George Washington, a leader in the creation and ratification of the Constitution, and then the first Secretary of the Treasury.

Patrick Henry

Patrick Henry was an American lawyer, politician, and orator who played a significant role in the lead-up to the American Revolutionary War. His forceful advocacy for individual rights and his impassioned speeches helped shape the American identity and contributed to the spirit of resistance against British rule.

Thomas Jefferson

Best known for drafting the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson was an ambassador who later served as the Secretary of State and Vice President before becoming the third President of the United States. Throughout his life, he advocated democracy, personal liberty, and other values of the Enlightenment.

Monticello

James Madison

James Madison, known as the "Father of the Constitution" played a central role in establishing the . His contributions, including the Virginia Plan and his diligent note-taking, were instrumental in creating the framework for the federal government. He later served as the fourth President of the United States.

Thomas Paine

Thomas Paine was a prominent figure in the American and European Enlightenment, known for his influential writings that stirred revolutionary ideas and promoted democratic principles. His most important work "Common Sense" brought thousands of American colonists to support the movement for independence from Britain.

Baron von Steuben

Baron Friedrich von Steuben was a Prussian military officer who played a crucial role in training and improving the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He introduced standardized drill procedures, emphasized hygiene and camp sanitation, and instilled discipline, turning the army into a more professional fighting force.

George Washington

George Washington was a central figure in the founding of the United States and played a pivotal role in shaping its early history. Before serving as our first president, he commanded the Continental Army that won our independence from Britain. His time as president served as an example for all those who followed him. His legacy as a military leader, statesman, and exemplar of virtue and leadership has had a profound impact on the development of the United States and its democratic principles.

Mount Vernon

Period 3 Quizlet

Period 3 Kahoot

Period 3

Key Vocabulary

Absolute monarch: A ruler with complete authority over the government and the lives of the people, not restrained by a constitution or laws.
Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin during the French and Indian War, aimed to unite the colonies under a single government for defense.
Alien & Sedition Acts: Laws passed in 1798 by the Federalist-controlled Congress to restrict immigration and limit criticism of the government.
Amendments to the Constitution: Changes or additions to the United States Constitution, providing a process for adapting the document to societal changes.
Annapolis Convention: Meeting held in 1786 to discuss issues of interstate trade and commerce, leading to the calling of the Constitutional Convention.
Anti-Federalists: Opponents of the Constitution during the ratification process, concerned about centralized power and the lack of a Bill of Rights.
Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, adopted in 1777, emphasizing state sovereignty and weak central government.
Battle of Fallen Timbers: Conflict in 1794 between Native American forces and American troops led by General Anthony Wayne, ending Native American resistance in the Northwest Territory.
Battle of Saratoga: Key American victory in 1777 during the Revolutionary War, convincing France to formally enter the war on the side of the Patriots.
Battle of Yorktown: Final major battle of the Revolutionary War in 1781, leading to the surrender of British General Cornwallis and effectively ending the conflict.
Battles of Lexington and Concord: The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, marking the beginning of armed conflict between British forces and American colonists.
Bill of Rights: the first ten amendments to the Constitution; helped reassure Americans who feared that the federal government established under the Constitution would infringe on the rights of individuals and states
Boston Massacre: 1770 clash between colonial protestors and British soldiers in Boston that lead to the death of five colonists; the bloody conflict was used to promote the patriots' cause
Boston Tea Party: rally against British tax policy organized by the Sons of Liberty on December 6, 1773 consisting of 50 men disguised as American Indians who boarded British ships and dumped 45 tons of tea into Boston Harbor
Coercive Acts 1774: Also known as the Intolerable Acts, passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, aimed at punishing Massachusetts and asserting British authority.
Commercial Compromise: Agreement during the Constitutional Convention to allow Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce while prohibiting export taxes.
Committees of Correspondence: Networks established by American Patriots to communicate and coordinate resistance efforts against British colonial policies.
Congress: The legislative branch of the United States government, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
Connecticut Plan (Great Compromise): Proposal at the Constitutional Convention to create a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in the House of Representatives and equal representation in the Senate.
Constitutional Convention: Meeting held in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation, resulting in the drafting of the United States Constitution.
Continental Army: army created by the Second Continental Congress after the battles of Lexington and Concord began the Revolutionary War in 1775
Continental Congress: convened in Philadelphia in 1774 in response to the Coercive Acts; delegates hoped to re-establish the freedoms colonists had previously enjoyed
Cotton gin: Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, a machine that revolutionized cotton production by efficiently removing seeds from cotton fibers.
Currency Act: 1764 act of Parliament preventing colonial assemblies from printing paper money or bills of credit, curtailing the ability of local colonial economies to expand
Daughters of Liberty: Women's organization that supported the Patriot cause by boycotting British goods and producing homemade goods during the American Revolution.
Declaratory Act 1765: Passed by the British Parliament, asserting its authority to legislate for the American colonies "in all cases whatsoever" following the repeal of the Stamp Act.
Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms: Document issued by the Second Continental Congress in 1775, justifying the American colonies' taking up arms against British forces.
Declaration of Independence: document declaring the independence of the colonies from Great Britain, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, then debated and revised by the Continental Congress; made public July 4, 1776
Deism: A religious belief in a distant, non-intervening God who created the universe but does not actively interfere in human affairs.
Democratic-Republican Party: Political party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, advocating for states' rights, limited government, and agrarian interests.
Dunmore's Proclamation: 1775 proclamation issued by the British commander Lord Dunmore that offered freedom to all enslaved African Americans who joined the British army; heightened concerns among some patriots about the consequences of independence
Economic sanctions: Measures imposed by a government to restrict trade or financial transactions with a particular country or group, often used as a diplomatic tool.
Electoral College System: Method for electing the President of the United States, involving the selection of electors who vote for the president.
Federalists: Supporters of the Constitution during the ratification process, advocating for a strong central government.
First Continental Congress: Meeting of delegates from twelve of the thirteen American colonies in 1774, in response to the Intolerable Acts, to coordinate a colonial response to British policies.
French Revolution: A period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
guerilla (fighting): to involve the use of a small attacking, mobile force against a large, unwieldy force
House of Representatives: One of the two chambers of the United States Congress, representing the people based on population.
Indian Intercourse Act: Series of laws passed by the United States Congress to regulate interactions between Native American tribes and settlers.
Intolerable Acts: Also known as the Coercive Acts, a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, aimed at asserting British authority over the American colonies.
Jay Treaty 1794: Agreement between the United States and Great Britain, negotiated by John Jay, aimed at resolving issues left over from the Revolutionary War.
Judiciary Act 1789: Legislation passed by Congress that established the federal court system of the United States.
Land Ordinance of 1785: Legislation passed by Congress that established a system for surveying and selling western lands in the United States.
loyalists: colonial supporters of the British during the American Revolution
Massachusetts Circular Letter: A protest against the Townshend Acts written by Samuel Adams and James Otis and circulated among the colonies in 1768.
minutemen: militia groups trained to prepare quickly for local defense in case of British attack
Mount Vernon Conference: Meeting between Virginia and Maryland representatives in 1785 to discuss navigation rights and commerce on the Potomac River.
Naturalization Act: 1798 act by the Federalist-controlled Congress that raised the residency requirement for citizenship from 5-14 years to delay the naturalization of immigrants who largely voted Democratic-Republican
New Jersey Plan: Proposal at the Constitutional Convention to create a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Legislation that established a process for admitting new states to the Union in the Northwest Territory and prohibited slavery in the region.
Olive Branch Petition: A final attempt by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to reconcile with Britain, rejected by King George III.
patriots: American colonists who favored the movement for independence during the 1770s
Peace of Paris 1793: Treaty that ended the American Revolutionary War and recognized American independence from Britain.
Pinckney Treaty 1795: Treaty between the United States and Spain that settled boundary disputes and granted American navigation rights on the Mississippi River.
Pontiac’s Rebellion: Native American uprising in the Ohio Valley in 1763 against British settlers and government policies following the French and Indian War.
Proclamation of 1763: British decree that prohibited settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, intended to reduce conflicts with Native Americans.
Proclamation of Neutrality 1783: Declaration by President George Washington stating that the United States would remain impartial in conflicts between France and Britain.
Prohibitory Act 1775: British law passed in response to the American Declaration of Independence, declaring the colonies to be in open rebellion.
Public Land Act 1796: Legislation that established procedures for selling federal lands in the western territories of the United States.
Quartering Act 1765: British law requiring colonial assemblies to provide housing and supplies for British troops stationed in the colonies.
Quebec Act 1774: British law that extended Quebec's borders and granted religious freedom to French Catholics in the province, seen as oppressive by American colonists.
ratify: sign or give formal consent to
Rationalism: Philosophical belief in the power of reason and the importance of evidence and logic in understanding the world.
Republican Motherhood: Ideology emphasizing the importance of women's roles in raising virtuous citizens and promoting republican values in the early United States.
Right of deposit: Access granted to American merchants to store goods temporarily in Spanish-controlled New Orleans, vital for trade along the Mississippi River.
Salutary neglect: British policy of loosely enforcing colonial trade laws, allowing colonies a degree of self-government and economic freedom.
Second Continental Congress: Representative body that convened in 1775 after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, serving as the de facto government of the United States.
Senate: One of the two chambers of the United States Congress, with equal representation for each state.
Seven Years War: Also known as the French and Indian War, a global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763, involving Britain, France, and their colonial possessions.
Shay’s Rebellion: A revolt by Massachusetts farmers in 1786-1787 against high taxes and lack of economic relief following the American Revolutionary War.
Social contract: Political theory that individuals voluntarily submit to government authority in exchange for protection of their natural rights, popularized by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke.
Sons (& Daughters) of Liberty: Secret society formed to protest British policies and taxation in the American colonies, known for organizing acts of resistance such as the Boston Tea Party.
speculators: a person who invests in stocks, property, or other ventures in the hope of making a profit
Stamp Act 1765: British law imposing a tax on all paper documents in the American colonies, leading to widespread protests and boycotts.
Stamp Act Congress: Meeting of colonial delegates in 1765 to protest the Stamp Act and assert the rights of the colonies to self-governance.
Statute of Religious Freedom: 1776 Virginia Assembly statute that ensured the separation of church and state and largely guaranteed freedom of religion; many others followed Virginia's lead
Suffolk Resolves: Declaration issued by the First Continental Congress in 1774, asserting colonial rights in response to the Intolerable Acts.
Sugar Act 1764: British law that imposed taxes on sugar and other goods imported into the American colonies, contributing to growing colonial resentment.
Tea Act 1773: British law granting the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies, leading to the Boston Tea Party.
The Federalist Papers: Series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
Thomas Paine: British-American political activist and author of influential pamphlets such as "Common Sense" and "The American Crisis."
Three-fifths compromise: Agreement at the Constitutional Convention to count three-fifths of enslaved individuals for the purpose of determining representation in Congress and taxation.
Townshend Acts 1767: British laws that imposed taxes on imported goods and created new customs enforcement measures in the American colonies.
Treaty of Greenville: Agreement between the United States and Native American tribes in the Northwest Territory in 1795, ending hostilities and ceding Native American lands to the U.S.
Treaty of Paris 1783: Treaty that ended the American Revolutionary War and recognized American independence from Britain.
tyranny: cruel and oppressive government rule
Valley Forge: Winter encampment of the Continental Army in Pennsylvania in 1777-1778, marked by harsh conditions and training under General George Washington.
Virginia Plan: Proposal at the Constitutional Convention to create a bicameral legislature with representation based on population, favored by larger states.
Virginia Resolves: a series of resolutions passed by the Virginia House of Burgesses in response to the Stamp Act denouncing taxation without representation
Washington’s Farewell Address: Address by President George Washington upon leaving office, advising against political factional
Whigs: a political party in the United States during the 19th century, existing from the 1830s to the 1850s; emerged as a response to Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party and his policies, particularly his expansion of executive power and his handling of economic issues like the Second Bank of the United States; favored a strong federal government, internal improvements, and a national bank, drawing support from various groups, including merchants, industrialists, and some Southern planters.
Whiskey Rebellion: uprising by western Pennsylvania farmers who led protests against the excise tax on whiskey in the early 1790s
Writ of Assistance: court orders issued by British colonial authorities in the American colonies, particularly in the mid-18th century; allowed customs officials to search any premises they suspected of containing smuggled goods, without necessarily needing a specific warrant.
Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions: passed by legislatures in Virginia and Kentucky that declared the Alien & Sedition Acts "void and of no force" in their states
virtual representation: British claim that direct representation of colonists was unnecessary because Parliament virtually represented the interests of the colonies
XYZ Affair: a diplomatic incident between the United States and France during the late 18th century. It occurred during the presidency of John Adams, around 1797 to 1798; three French diplomats who were sent to negotiate with American envoys to resolve ongoing conflicts between the two countries stemming from France's seizure of American ships trading with Britain and the United States' refusal to honor its Revolutionary War debt to France. The French diplomats demanded bribes and a loan to France as a condition for negotiations, which angered the American envoys and the American public when news of the affair became public.

Key People

Abigail Adams: an advocate for women's rights and was known for her letters to her husband, in which she provided him with advice and insight on various political matters; often considered one of the most influential First Ladies in American history.
John Adams: a Founding Father of the United States and the second President of the United States, serving from 1797 to 1801; played a crucial role in the American Revolution, a key figure in drafting the Declaration of Independence, served as an ambassador to France, and later as the first vice president of the United States.
Samuel Adams: an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States; a key figure in the American Revolution and played a significant role in organizing the Boston Tea Party, which was a protest against British taxation.
Crispus Attucks: an African American man who was one of the first casualties of the American Revolution, killed during the Boston Massacre in 1770 when British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists. His death became a symbol of the struggle for American independence and is often cited as an early example of African American resistance against oppression.
Daniel Boone: an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman best known for his exploration and settlement of Kentucky, which was then considered the American frontier; played a vital role in the westward expansion of the United States and was a legendary figure in American folklore.
Edward Braddock: British general during the French and Indian War, known for his defeat at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755.
George Rogers Clark: American military leader who led successful campaigns against British forts in the Ohio Valley during the Revolutionary War.
Charles Cornwallis: a British army officer and colonial administrator who played a significant role in the American Revolutionary War; commanded British forces in several major battles, including the Battle of Yorktown, where he surrendered to General George Washington, effectively ending the war. His surrender at Yorktown marked a turning point in the war and led to the eventual independence of the United States.
William Dawes: a patriot and militia officer during the American Revolutionary War best known for his role alongside Paul Revere in the midnight ride to alert colonial militia of British movements before the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775.
John Dickinson: an American lawyer and politician who was known as the "Penman of the Revolution"; a delegate to the Continental Congress and was instrumental in drafting the Articles of Confederation, which served as the first constitution of the United States.
Lord Dunmore: (also known as John Murray) a British colonial governor of Virginia during the American Revolution best known for his controversial actions, including issuing a proclamation in 1775 that promised freedom to enslaved individuals who joined the British forces.
"Citizen" Genet: a French diplomat during the French Revolution who tried to recruit Americans to fight for France, causing diplomatic tensions.
King George III: King of Great Britain and Ireland during the American Revolution; often portrayed as the symbol of British tyranny and oppression in American history, as his policies, such as increased taxation and the imposition of strict control over the American colonies, contributed to growing discontent and ultimately led to the American Revolution.
Alexander Hamilton: a Founding Father of the United States, an influential political philosopher, and the first Secretary of the Treasury; played a crucial role in the American Revolution and was one of the key authors of the Federalist Papers, which argued for the ratification of the United States Constitution. His economic policies, including the establishment of a national bank and the promotion of manufacturing, had a lasting impact on the development of the United States.
Patrick Henry: an American attorney, planter, and politician who was known for his stirring speeches advocating for American independence; famously declared, "Give me liberty, or give me death!" in a speech to the Virginia Convention in 1775.
John Jay: an American statesman, diplomat, and Founding Father who served as the first Chief Justice of the United States; a key negotiator of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which ended the American Revolutionary War, and also co-wrote several of the Federalist Papers as a strong advocate for a strong central government.
Thomas Jefferson: a Founding Father of the United States, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and the third President of the United States; played a crucial role in shaping American democracy and was a strong advocate for individual rights and limited government. His presidency was marked by the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
Henry Knox: an American military officer and politician who served as the first United States Secretary of War; played a crucial role in the American Revolutionary War and later helped establish the United States Army, known for his expertise in artillery and played a significant role in the successful defense of Boston during the war.
Pierre-Charles L’Enfant: French-born American architect and engineer who designed the layout of Washington, D.C., including the street plan and the location of the Capitol and White House.
Marquis de Lafayette: a French aristocrat and military officer who fought alongside the American colonists during the American Revolutionary War; formed a close relationship with George Washington and played a crucial role in securing French support for the American cause.
Richard Henry Lee: an American statesman and Founding Father who is best known for his resolution calling for the independence of the American colonies from Great Britain; passed by the Continental Congress on July 2, 1776, and served as the basis for the Declaration of Independence.
James Madison: a Founding Father of the United States and the fourth President of the United States, serving from 1809 to 1817, often referred to as the "Father of the Constitution" because of his role in drafting and promoting the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights. His presidency was marked by the War of 1812 with Great Britain.
George Mason: an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States; a key figure in the drafting of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which served as a model for the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution.
Mary McCauley: Also known as Molly Pitcher, a legendary figure who fought in the Revolutionary War, most famously at the Battle of Monmouth.
James Monroe: a Founding Father of the United States and the fifth President of the United States, serving from 1817 to 1825, best known for the Monroe Doctrine, which declared that the United States would not tolerate European colonization or interference in the Americas. His presidency was marked by the "Era of Good Feelings" and the acquisition of Florida from Spain.
Gouverneur Morris: American statesman and Founding Father who played a key role in drafting the United States Constitution.
Lord Fredrick North: British Prime Minister during the early years of the American Revolutionary War, known for his policies that alienated the American colonies.
James Otis: American lawyer and patriot known for his opposition to British colonial policies, famously arguing against writs of assistance in court.
Thomas Paine: an English-American political activist, philosopher, and author who played a significant role in the American Revolution; best known for his influential pamphlet, Common Sense, which advocated for American independence from Great Britain.
Charles Wilson Peale: American painter and naturalist known for his portraits of leading figures of the American Revolution and for founding one of the first museums in the United States.
Charles Pinckney: an American politician and Founding Father who played a significant role in the development of the United States Constitution; a delegate to the Constitutional Convention and was a strong advocate for a strong central government. Also served as a governor of South Carolina and as a United States senator.
Edmund Randolph: American statesman who served as the first Attorney General of the United States and later as Secretary of State under President George Washington.
Paul Revere: an American silversmith, engraver, and patriot who played a crucial role in the American Revolution, best known for his "midnight ride" on April 18, 1775, warning colonial militia of the approaching British forces before the Battles of Lexington and Concord. He also created the image of the Boston Massacre, which garnered support for the American Revolution.
Betsy Ross: an American seamstress who is credited with creating the first American flag
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Enlightenment philosopher known for his ideas on social contract theory and democracy.
Benjamin Rush: an American physician, politician, and social reformer who played a significant role in the American Revolution; signed the Declaration of Independence and was a strong advocate for public health reforms and the abolition of slavery.
Deborah Sampson: an American woman who disguised herself as a man and served as a soldier in the Continental Army during the American Revolution; one of the few known women to have served in combat during the war.
Adam Smith: a Scottish economist and philosopher who is often referred to as the "father of modern economics." He is best known for his book, The Wealth of Nations, which laid the foundation for classical economics and promoted the idea of free markets and limited government intervention in the economy.
Baron Friedrich von Steuben: a Prussian military officer who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolution best known for his training and discipline of the American troops at Valley Forge, which significantly improved their military effectiveness.
Gilbert Stuart: American painter known for his portraits of prominent figures, including several portraits of George Washington.
Charles Townshend: a British politician who served as the Chancellor of the Exchequer during the 1760s best known for his role in implementing the Townshend Acts, which imposed taxes on various goods imported into the American colonies, which were met with widespread resistance and contributed to growing tensions between the American colonies and Great Britain.
George Washington: a Founding Father of the United States and the first President of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. He played a crucial role in the American Revolutionary War as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and is regarded as one of the most influential figures in American history, highly respected for his leadership and character.
Eli Whitney: American inventor known for inventing the cotton gin and for developing the concept of interchangeable parts in manufacturing.

PS: Just watch "Hamilton". Or "John Adams". Or both!

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