Period 4

Learning Objectives:

Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848.
Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic.
Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.
Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time.
Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.
Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time.
Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.
Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.
Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848.
Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening.
Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848.
Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848.
Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848.
Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848.

Thomas Jefferson

The Election of 1800

The second election of the United States saw the emergence of political parties. Adams represented the unpopular Federalists, the party is favor of a strong national government and allegiance towards Britain. Jefferson represented the Democratic-Republicans, who emphasized the power of states and preferred to ally themselves with France. Both recognized the need for taxes, but disagreed over how those taxes would be collected.

Between the XYZ Affair and the Alien & Sedition Acts, Adams’ presidency was full of turmoil, so the Election of 1800 actually came down to a choice between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. While Jefferson was a revolutionary icon as the author of the Declaration of Independence, his initial opposition to the Constitution, disagreements with previous presidents, and love of France made some skeptical of his allegiance to the US. Aaron Burr, on the other hand, had been a background figure throughout the revolution and creation of the government, but many found him to be a better representation of the American people than a wealthy plantation owner. The electoral college debated for days before following the advice of Alexander Hamilton and electing Thomas Jefferson as our third president. Democratic- Republicans also took majority in the House and Senate, giving the party control over most of the federal government (which they ironically sought to weaken).

President Jefferson

Once elected, Thomas Jefferson tried to appease both the members of his party while keeping in mind the interests of his opponents by maintaining the national bank and the policy of neutrality while also limiting the power of the central government by reducing the size of the military and repealing excise taxes. Compared to Adams, Jefferson had an easy first term.

Jefferson easily won reelection in 1804. Other elements of his presidency include:

Reversing Federalist policies
Suspending the Alien & Sedition Acts
Supporting impeachment campaigns to remove Federalists judges (Adams' "midnight judges")
Reducing the size & cost of the national gov’t (and failing)
Encouraging Congress to create an embargo to punish England & France for violating U.S. free trade (unfortunately it hurt Americans more than the British & French)
Reducing the size of the army
Cutting back Hamilton’s financial plan by ending all excise taxes
Allowing the charter of the Bank of the U.S. to expire
Pursuing policies that catered to his belief that America should be an “agrarian republic”

Jefferson Podcast

The Louisiana Purchase

One of Jefferson’s biggest accomplishments was the orchestration of the Louisiana Purchase. As a property owner, Jefferson saw the value in expanding America’s borders and wanted to do so as quickly as possible. Despite not technically having the authority to do so, Jefferson sent agents to offer Napoleon $10 million dollars for the port of New Orleans and land between that port and Florida. Napoleon, a man set on war and thus in need of money, countered with a new offer - all of their American territory including the requested area for $15 million dollars. The agreement was settled quickly, doubling the size of the nation overnight. While most agreed with the move, it technically went against Jefferson’s belief in a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

To protect and promote his investment, Jefferson sent his long-time friend Meriwether Lewis, who in turn requested the help of a fellow soldier and friend, William Clark. The pair set off from St.Louis in 1803 with plenty of guns, food, and extra hands to chart their great adventure. During their journey, they mapped geological features, catalogued new plants and animals, fostered relationships with Native American tribes (largely through the help of Sacagawea), and recorded routes for future explorers and settlers to follow before returning in 1806. The Lewis and Clark Expedition improved relations with natives, provided Americans with a claim to the Oregon territory, and established land routes for expansion and trade.

John Marshall

One of Adams’ “midnight judges” was John Marshall, a Federalist judge who oversaw a variety of major legal issues during his time as Chief Justice to the Supreme Court. Despite being Jefferson's cousin, the two often butted heads, with Jefferson growing increasingly frustrated by Marshall's actions. During his 34 years in this position, Marshall held strong influence on the future of the United States, and strengthened the belief that the Constitution created a strong but flexible federal government. Just as Washington set the precedent for the office of the president, so did Marshall for the Supreme Court.

James Madison

Election of 1808

Following the precedent set by Washington, Jefferson stepped down after two terms as president, and supported the nomination of James Madison, his long time friend and current Secretary of State. Often called the “Father of the Constitution”, Madison was revered for his mind and was able to win the majority of electoral votes to become president. Unfortunately, his political skills left much to be desired.

The War of 1812

"The Second American Revolution"

Often considered the second battle for independence, the War of 1812 was the result of continued violation of US neutrality and troubles with British encroachment on the western frontier. These pressures were exacerbated by war hawks, a group of Democratic-Republicans in Congress who argued that the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy native resistance was war. Madison eventually agrees and seeks a declaration of war from Congress, just as Britain agreed to suspend its naval blockade. This decision secured Madison’s reelection in 1812.

Weary of war and seeing no end in sight, agents from the US and Britain met in Belgium to end the war. The Treaty of Ghent stopped the fighting and reinstated prewar boundaries, but made no mention of ending impressment, blockades, or other issues that initially started the war, essentially ending the war in a draw in 1814 (ratified by Congress in 1815).

Legacy of the War of 1812:

US fought for and maintained their independence, earning the respect of other nations
Increase in nationalism
Increase in industrialization and self-sufficiency as a result of embargoes and trade disruptions
Federalist Party came to an end
Secession talks set a precedent for future decisions in southern states
American Indians were forced to surrender land to White settlement
War heroes Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison ushered in a new generation of political leaders

Meanwhile in New England...

Prior to the war’s end, delegates of the New England states who were opposed to war and the Democratic-Republicans in Washington met in Hartford, CT to discuss the issue of secession from the Union. While the move to secede was considered to radical, the delegates did agree to advocate for all future wars to have ⅔ majority in both the House and Senate to pass. Shortly after, news of Jackson’s victory in New Orleans and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent broke, and the work of the remaining Federalists of New England was considered unpatriotic, furthering the party’s decline.

James Monroe

Election of 1816

James Monroe, a hero of the Revolutionary war who survived the winter at Valley Forge with Washington and Secretary of State to James Madison, easily won the election of 1816, becoming America’s fifth president. His opponent, Rufus King, represented the dying Federalist party and only secured 34 electoral votes to Monroe’s 183.

Monroe’s two terms as president oversaw several important events and milestones for the US:

Era of Good Feelings
Acquisition of Florida & Oregon
Monroe Doctrine

The Era of Good Feelings

Peace & Prosperity (Mostly)

The Era of Good Feelings was a period of relative peace and prosperity associated with the presidency of James Monroe. This era followed the War of 1812 and coincided with a time when the Federalist Party had declined, leaving the Democratic-Republicans as the dominant political force. As political opposition diminished, a sense of unity took the place of previous conflict and turmoil.

Despite its name, this era was not entirely free of challenges. There were still underlying sectional tensions, particularly regarding issues such as slavery and economic differences between the North and the South. After Monroe's presidency, the nation experienced a resurgence of political conflicts and the eventual rise of new political parties.

Tariff of 1816

The War of 1812 disrupted international trade, and after the war, American industries faced competition from foreign goods. Supported by Democratic-Republicans, the Tariff of 1816 was the first protective tariff in U.S. history, designed to protect American industries by imposing taxes on imported goods. The primary purpose of the tariff was to protect and nurture domestic industries. By imposing tariffs on imported goods, the government aimed to make domestically produced goods more competitive. While the tariff was beneficial for industrial regions, it had mixed effects on agricultural regions. Farmers in the South, who relied on exporting agricultural products, were concerned about potential retaliatory tariffs from other countries, but believed the tariff was necessary to help America prosper.

Henry Clay & the American System

Henry Clay, the House representative from Kentucky, proposed a comprehensive economic plan that aimed to promote economic growth and development in the United States known as the American System. It consisted of three parts:

protective tariffs on imported goods (to make foreign goods more expensive, protecting domestic industries from foreign competition)
the re-establishment of a national bank (to provide a stable currency, regulate state-chartered banks, and promote a unified financial system)
substantial investments in internal improvements, such as roads, bridges, canals, and later, railroads (to promote commerce, facilitate the movement of goods and people, and connect different regions of the country)

Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was the first major financial crisis in the United States. It was marked by a widespread economic downturn, bank failures, foreclosures, and a general contraction of credit. Several factors contributed to the onset of the Panic of 1819:

Post-War Economy: During the War of 1812, the United States had experienced economic growth driven by demand for goods, but the post-war period saw a surplus of agricultural products and a decline in demand.
Land Speculation: There was significant speculation in western lands, fueled by the desire for westward expansion. The availability of credit and easy lending practices contributed to the speculative bubble in land prices.
Easy Credit and Banking Practices: The Second Bank of the United States and state-chartered banks issued a significant amount of paper money, leading to inflation and financial speculation.
Global Economic Factors: Internationally, there was an economic downturn in the late 1810s, particularly in Europe. This had a negative impact on American exports, further contributing to economic challenges.

Moving West

Between the Louisiana Purchase and the population increase following the War of 1812, Americans started to move westward. Several factors contributed to the rapid growth along the western frontier:

Acquisition of Lands - William Henry Harrison secured the Indiana territory while Jackson got parts of Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida ready for development
Economic Pressures - Decades of poor farming methods ruined the soil of the south and the embargo hurt industry in the north, causing people to look west for a better future.
Improved transportation - roads, canals, steamboats, and railroads made the journey less perilous and ensured western settlers had access to manufactured goods
Immigrants - Europeans continued to pour into America in hopes of having a better life

John Quincy Adams

Election of 1824

Son of the second president, ambassador for several previous presidents, and secretary of state to James Madison, John Quincy Adams was elected president after the contentious election of 1824. The other candidates were Andrew Jackson, William Crawford, and Henry Clay. Jackson won the popular vote, but the four way split in Congress prevented him from getting majority of electoral votes. Henry Clay used his influence to provide John Quincy Adams with the victory and then became Adams’ secretary of state. Jackson and his supporters accused Adams and Clay of making a “corrupt bargain”.

President John Quincy Adams

Once elected, Adams alienated many by asking Congress for money for internal improvements, manufacturing, and a national university with an observatory. Jacksonians viewed this as a waste of money. The situation was exacerbated by the “tariff of abominations” (a high protective tariff which angered southerners) in 1828.

When Adams sought reelection in 1828, Jackson and his supporters capitalized on the discontent of the southerners and westerners while smearing the president and his family. The drama attracted a lot of voters, and Jackson won in a landslide.

Andrew Jackson

Party Problems

During the early 1800s, the Democratic-Republican Party began experiencing internal divisions and external pressures, leading to a series of complications. These complications ultimately contributed to the party's fragmentation and the emergence of new political factions. Some key issues and complications include:

Rise of sectionalism
Economic disputes
Debates over foreign policy
Lack of strong leaders after Madison & Jefferson
Expansion of suffrage

The candidacy and presidency of Andrew Jackson signaled a split in the Democratic-Republican party. Supporters of Jackson were considered Democrats while supporters of Henry Clay were called Whigs. The Democrats represented the political leanings of Thomas Jefferson - supporting states rights and minimizing federal power and spending. The Whigs represented a revival of Alexander Hamilton’s Federalist party, favoring a strong central government and supporting both the federal bank and national road. Both parties were challenged by growing abolitionist movement, westward expansion, and the emergence of an industrial economy.

During this time, the American politics experienced a variety of changes:

Party Nominating Committees: In the 1830s, candidates were decided by nominating conventions instead of by state legislatures or “King Caucus” (a closed-door meeting of a political party’s meeting in Congress).
Popular Election of Electors: For the presidential election of 1832, all states except SC adopted more democratic methods for nominating candidates.
Two-Party System: Now that presidential elections garnered more attention from all citizens due to the expansion of suffrage, candidates needed large parties to support and fund their campaigns, leading to the development of a two-party system (at this time, the Whigs & Democrats).
Rise of Third Parties: While only the two major parties had hope of winning the presidency, other political parties emerged to support those who didn’t feel represented by those parties.
More Elected Offices: More voters means more of a voice in government, so more officials were elected instead of appointed.
Popular Campaigning: Candidates for office directed their campaigns to entertain the masses and gain their support by whatever means necessary.
Spoils System: During Jackson’s presidency, government jobs were kept or given to those loyal to his party.
Rotation in Office: Limiting people to one term in office to put another deserving party member in their place as a means of preventing corruption and praising all those who are loyal to the party.

President Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson, the seventh President of the United States, served two terms from 1829 to 1837. His presidency was marked by a commitment to populism, controversial policies such as Indian removal, confrontations with states over nullification, and a significant expansion of executive power. Known as “Old Hickory”, Jackson was a different kind of president; a self-made man and war hero who maintained his rough frontier manners by fighting in duels, chewing tobacco, and often losing his temper. This made him popular among those in the south and west as they believed he represented the “common man”. His presidency left a lasting impact on the nation, shaping the political landscape, and setting precedents for future leaders.

Forming the Democratic Party, campaigning for the votes of the “common man,” & spoils system, Jackson was known for his appeal to the masses and his efforts to expand political participation. He championed the idea of a government that served the interests of ordinary citizens. Jackson’s use of the veto strengthened presidential power and opposition to Jackson led to the permanent two-party system. While he is celebrated for his role in expanding democracy and increasing the participation of the common man in politics, his policies, particularly regarding Native Americans, have been widely criticized for their negative impact on vulnerable populations.

The Controversies of the Jacksonian Era

The Indian Removal Act

One of the most controversial aspects of Jackson's presidency was the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This policy led to the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to territories west of the Mississippi River. This journey became known as the Trail of Tears, resulting in significant hardship and loss of life for the Native American populations.

Most tribes complied and moved west but one challenged the policy in a case that went to the Supreme Court. The Cherokee were not removed earlier than the 1830s was because they were “highly civilized” and did not fit the “traditional Indian stereotype”. The Cherokee had a written alphabet, democratically elected leaders, and were skilled farmers. The Cherokee did not go to war when Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, instead they sued in the Supreme Court and won! But, the state of Georgia & President Jackson ignored the Supreme Court & took Indian lands anyway in Supreme Court case Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831).

The Nullification Crisis

The Nullification Crisis (1832-33) exposed sectionalism between the states and national government. By the 1830s, sectionalism was becoming more obvious, especially over the issue of tariffs. Southerners argued that tariffs (specifically the Tariff of 1828) helped Northern industry but made prices higher for farmers. When Congress passed a high tariff in 1832, Southerners claimed “states’ rights” and threatened to nullify the tariff. Nullification is the argument that states have the right to ignore federal laws that they think are unfair.

VP John Calhoun from South Carolina urged nullification
States have the right to protect themselves from the national government
As a last resort, states can secede from the Union
The national gov’t is supreme over the individual states
Urged Congress to pass the Force Bill to enforce the tariff, asserting the supremacy of federal law
Jackson also issued the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, claiming that nullification and disunion were treason
President Jackson viewed nullification as a threat to U.S. but encouraged Congress to lower the tariff as a compromise

The Bank War

In 1816, Congress created the Second Bank of the U.S. as part of Henry Clay’s American System. It held ~$10 million in federal money which it loaned to state banks, forcing small banks to be smart when issuing loans. State banks loaned money to individual citizens, businesses, or local governments to finance roads, canals, factories, and farms.

Jackson was a staunch opponent of the Second Bank of the United States, viewing it as a tool that favored the wealthy elite over the common people. After winning reelection in 1832, he worked to end it. He vetoed the recharter of the bank and withdrew federal funds, contributing to the financial Panic of 1837.

Jackson frequently attacked the bank as “dangerous to people’s liberties”.
In 1833, he ordered all federal money to be removed from the BUS & put in 23 “pet” state banks.
Without the BUS, the economy entered a 6-year recession.

After Jackson

Martin Van Buren

As Jackson’s second vice-president, Martin Van Buren carried his predecessor’s popularity entering the election of 1836. With the support of Jackson and the Democrats, and the failed strategy of the Whigs nominating one candidate from each region, he became the eighth president of the United States.

Just as he took office, the country suffered from a economic crisis known as the Panic of 1837. The Whigs capitalized on this to secure the election of 1840 for their candidate, war hero and frontier champion William Henry Harrison.

William Henry Harrison

For the election of 1840, the Whigs learned from past mistakes and adopted an energetic and populist campaign strategy, emphasizing William Henry Harrison as a man of the people. The famous "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign highlighted Harrison's humble background and military achievements. Even though he came from an aristocratic family, the campaign successfully presented him as a relatable figure, securing 53.5% of the popular vote and 79% of the electoral votes. He took office on March 4, 1841, but tragically died on April 4, 1841, just 31 days into his term. His death was attributed to pneumonia, which he likely contracted during his inauguration, held in inclement weather. His vice-president, John Tyler, succeeded him but did not serve the Whigs well, often vetoing their bills and favoring policies presented by southern Democrats.

The Market Revolution

A New Way to Live & Work

The Market Revolution was a transformative period in the United States during the first half of the 19th century, shifting the nation from from agrarian, subsistence-based economies to market-oriented economies. The growth of industry, advancements in transportation (such as canals, roads, and later railroads), and increased agricultural productivity led to the rise of a market-driven economy. The revolution saw the rapid industrialization of the Northern states. Factories and mills emerged, powered by water and later steam, leading to the mass production of goods. This shift from handcrafting to mechanized production transformed industries such as textiles, iron, and coal mining. It brought about significant economic, social, and technological changes, fundamentally altering the way Americans lived and worked.

Changes in Agriculture

Crops such as corn and wheat were very profitable and fed those in urban areas. Furthermore, the addition of new farming technology like John Deere’s steel plow and Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaper helped farming families produce more crops efficiently. These innovations required less labor, as well as, allowed for excess crops to be used to feed the livestock or be sold to distilleries/brewers.

With the growth of industry in the early 1800s, agriculture shifted from subsistence farming to a commercial enterprise dedicated to the growth of cash crops, specifically cotton. The cotton industry connected the South with the rest of the country and the world. Raw cotton was turned into fabric in the mills of the North, and to devote all their land to growing cotton, plantation owners were supplied with meat from the West. Furthermore, it depended on the use of shipping firms, insurance companies, and banks.

In 1793, Eli Whitney revolutionized the industry by introducing the cotton gin - a machine that would separate cotton from seeds, a task that used to be done by hand. This caused many farmers to commit fully to the production of cotton and also increased demand for African slaves.

Changes in Transportation

The surplus of crops needed to be transported to cities quickly to avoid spoilage, thus innovations in transportation were necessary.

Roads
- The Lancaster Turnpike connected Philadelphia to the farmlands of Pennsylvania, encouraging other cities to follow suit. Many states’ rights activists argued against the use of federal funds for the development of interstate highways, with the exception of the National or Cumberland Road, a paved highway between Maryland to Illinois, with states splitting ownership and cost.
Canals
- The completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 connected the eastern cities to the frontier, turning New York City into the commercial center of the US.
Steam Engines & Steamboats
- The development of the steam engine allowed factories to not be limited to waterways. Later it was modified for transportation.
- Canals & Robert Fulton’s steamboat helped cut shipping costs by 90% for farmers.
Railroads
- Seeing the need for links between Northern cities, Southern plantations, and the Western frontier, the first railroad lines started being constructing in the 1820s.

Changes in Communication

While transportation helped citizens, supplies, and mail cross great distances faster, there was still a desire for speedy communication. Samuel F. B. Morse developed the telegraph in 1844, allowing messages to be transmitted across the nation almost instantaneously.

This allowed news to travel quickly, whether it be from generals on the front lines, politicians in the capital, or just information between relatives.

Changes in the Workplace

Factory System
- Samuel Slater, father of the American Factory System, immigrated from Britain and took with him information about factory designs even though it was illegal. He memorized the information used in British cotton mills and used it to help establish the first US textile factory in 1791.
Interchangeable Parts
- By 1840, Eli Whitney’s interchangeable parts & other textile technology led to an Industrial Revolution in the North.
Unions & Labor
- Initially labor was difficult to find for factories since they could not compete with the lure of cheap land in the west. In response, textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories. In the 1830s other factories imitated the Lowell System.
- With the growth of industry, individual craftsmen had to close up shop and work in the factories. Long hours, low wages, and terrible working conditions led to the creation of unions - worker groups formed to negotiate pay and working conditions with employers. Unfortunately, these early unions struggled due to the masses of immigrants who could easily replace workers who went on strike, state laws banning unions, and frequent economic depressions with low employment rates.

Impact of the Market Revolution

Population increase
Growth of urban areas
- New cities - Chicago, Detroit, Cincinnati, Buffalo, Cleveland, St. Louis, Boston, and Baltimore
- Spread of disease and crime, as well as poor sanitation, working, and living conditions led to the growth of new reform movements to improve the lives of city dwellers.
- Need for new materials eventually contributes to the creation of steel and use of gasoline.
Improved standard of living and more affordable manufactured goods
Growth of the middle class
Organization of unions and labor parties to represent the interests of factory workers
- Commonwealth v. Hunt decreed peaceful unions had the right to negotiate labor contracts with employers.
- Some states passed laws limiting the workday to ten-hours.

Age of Change & Reform

Antebellum America

The antebellum period refers to the era in the United States that precedes the Civil War. The term "antebellum" is derived from Latin and means "before the war." In American history, the antebellum period spans roughly from the late 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. It's characterized by significant social, economic, political, and cultural developments that set the stage for the sectional tensions and conflicts that ultimately led to the Civil War. During this time, reformers dedicated themselves to expanding education, abolishing slavery, ending the sale of alcohol, securing more rights for women, and improving treatment for the mentally-ill.

Cultural Nationalism

Emerging cultural nationalism in America involved the development of a distinctive literature, the establishment of national symbols, educational initiatives, cultural institutions, westward expansion, and the fostering of a shared language and communication infrastructure. These elements contributed to the shaping of a unified American culture and identity.

Star-Spangled Banner as a national anthem, American Flag as a symbol, and national celebrations of patriotism → July 4th
Noah Webster’s speller & dictionary
Romanticism: philosophical movement that emphasized intuition, feelings, individual acts of heroism, and the study of nature
Transcendentalism: 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of humanity, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths

Transcendentalism

The Transcendentalist movement was a philosophical and literary movement that emerged in the 19th century in the United States. It had a profound impact on American thought, literature, and culture. The writings of Transcendentalist authors, such as Emerson's essays and Thoreau's Walden, have left a lasting legacy in American literature. Their works continue to be studied for their philosophical insights, literary merit, and influence on subsequent generations of writers. Here are some key aspects of the significance of the Transcendentalist movement:

Individualism and nonconformity
Critique of materialism
Connection with nature

Art & Literature

In the mid-19th century, the American Renaissance marked a period of great literary and artistic creativity. Writers like Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Emily Dickinson, and Walt Whitman produced works that explored distinctly American themes and experiences, arguing that intuitive thinking on individual knowledge transcends the senses and can't be found just by observation; traits included self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline.

The establishment of cultural institutions, including museums and libraries, helped preserve and promote American history and achievements. These institutions, along with the spread of newspapers, magazines, and other forms of print media played a role in shaping a collective understanding of the nation's cultural heritage and identity.

Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was a significant religious revival movement that took place in the United States during the early to mid-19th century. It was characterized by a renewed interest in religious faith, emotional fervor in worship, and widespread evangelical activities. Key features of the Second Great Awakening include:

large-scale revivals and camp meetings
passionate displays of faith, including shouting, crying, and physical manifestations
belief in the possibility of individual and societal transformation through religious conversion
growth and diversification of various denominations - Church of Latter-day Saints, Seventh Day Adventists, Baptists, & Methodists
establishment and growth of educational institutions
the need for a personal, emotional experience of salvation and stressed the importance of spreading the Christian message to others

Causes of the Second Great Awakening include:

Growing emphasis on democracy and the individual that influenced politics and the arts also affected how people viewed religion
The rational approach to religion favored by deists and unitarians prompted a reaction toward more emotional expressions of beliefs
The market revolution caused many people to fear industrialization and commercialization would lead to an increase in greed and sin
The mobility of people led them to look for worship settings outside formal churches

Chasing Utopia

During the Renaissance, Sir Thomas More wrote Utopia, a novel defining the perfect world in which everyone lived equally in peace and harmony. With the spread of transcendentalist ideals, more people revisited More’s dream and attempted to bring it to life.

Brook Farm (MA): communal living space started by George Ripley, a Protestant minister who wanted to create “a more natural union between intellectuals and manual labor”
Shakers: religious communal movement which forbid marriage and sex
Amana Colonies: German settlers in Iowa who were part of the Pietism movement
New Harmony: socialist community founded by Robert Owen who hoped it would solve the problems of inequity and alienation that resulted from the Industrial Revolution
Oneida Community (NY): a cooperative community in which members shared property and spouses; despite criticism they were prosperous by creating and selling high quality silverware
Fourier Phalanxes: communities built based on the theories of socialist thinker Charles Fourier which advocated people shared work and housing

A New America

Equality was becoming the governing principle of American society. From 1800 to 1840, democracy increased in America. Before 1800, less than 50% of white men could vote because of property & tax restrictions. Western states newly admitted to the union (Indiana, Illinois, & Missouri) adopted state constitutions that allowed all white males to vote and hold office, and other states did the same. As a result, all white males could vote regardless of their social class or religion - universal white male suffrage.

Despite this change, discrimination against immigrants was widespread, women were still denied many basic rights, and the United States still practiced slavery when most of Europe had abolished it years ago.

Changing Roles of Women

As society became more urban and industrialized, women’s roles changed. Both in rural & urban settings, women were gaining more control over their lives. As more men worked away from home, women took on new responsibilities as moral leaders within the home, a development known as the cult of domesticity (the idealized view of women as moral leaders in the home). There were fewer arranged marriages and fewer children being born. Nevertheless, legal restrictions on women still remained. For instance, they could not vote or own property.

Women reformers in the anti-slavery movement were relegated to secondary roles and started to grow frustrated by their lack of power in policy making. In 1848, leading feminists met at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led the charge for women’s suffrage and property rights. Unfortunately, women would not get the right to vote until the passing of the 19th amendment in 1920.

Immigrants

Beginning in 1832, there was an increase in the number of immigrants coming to America largely due to the development of new, cheaper transportation across the Atlantic, famines and revolutions driving people out of their homelands, and the freedoms and opportunities offered in America.

Reform Movements

Temperance

The high rate of alcohol consumption prompted reformers to target alcohol as the cause of all of society’s problems - crime, poverty, domestic violence, laziness, etc. Protestant ministers founded the American Temperance Society which attempted to persuade drinkers to take pledges of abstinence. Recovering alcoholics argued that alcoholism was a disease that needed practical, helpful treatment. These ideas encouraged the creation of several different temperance groups to emerge. The temperance movement gained momentum and some states prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor, but this wasn’t achieved at a national level until 1919 with the passing of the 18th amendment.

Humanitarian Efforts

Humanitarian reformers of the 1820s-30s called attention to the increasing numbers of criminals, emotionally disturbed persons, and paupers and suggested the creation of new public institutions to help these individuals.

Dorothea Dix launched a cross-country crusade publicizing the treatment of the mentally ill and advocating for the creation of mental hospitals
Schools for the Blind & Deaf founded by Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe and Thomas Gallaudet respectively
Housing for criminals was restructured with mixed results.
- Solitary confinement → failed, high rate of suicide
- Asylum Movement → focus on moral reform
- Auburn system → provide moral instruction and work programs in addition to rules and discipline

Education

As some started to fear the future of America, reformers started to push for children of all classes to be educated in free public schools. In order for democracy to be effective, an educated population would be needed.

Horace Mann began the Common School Movement to create good citizens, unite society and prevent crime and poverty.
- Mann advocated a free public education, financed by local funds and administered by a local school board. This model is essentially the one used in America today.
- Compulsory attendance
- Extended school year
- Increased teacher preparation
Moral Education
- McGuffey readers extolled the virtues of hard work, punctuality, and sobriety
Higher Education
- Second Great Awakening helped fuel the growth of private colleges
- Extended higher education to women

Other Reform Efforts

American Peace Society wanted to abolish all war, specifically the war with Mexico
Laws against flogging sailors
Dietary reforms to improve nutrition and promote good digestion
Women’s dress reform, to allow women to move with more ease and comfort
Phrenology, a pseudoscience aimed at uncovering personality by studying skull texture

Abolition

The Issue of Slavery

As Americans flooded into the west, they gained populations eligible for statehood, though they would be small in comparison to their eastern counterparts. Fearful their voices in Congress would be largely ignored, western representatives bargained with those from the North and South to address their growing concerns, particularly “cheap money” or easy credit from state banks, low prices for land sold by the federal government, and improved transportation. One thing they could not all agree on was the issue of slavery. Some areas of the west relied on slavery for labor, while others had no need for it.

The Missouri Compromise

The issue of slavery was continually side-stepped by politicians. While the institution of slavery was dying out in Europe and many believed it went against the American ideals of freedom and equality, slaves were a necessary component of the southern economy, helped all of America profit. As new states were entering the Union, politicians worked to maintain a balance of power - one slave state for every free state. When Missouri applied for statehood, however, northerners and southerns alike feared the outcome. As the first state created from the Louisiana Purchase, it would set the precedent for all future applications for statehood from the west. After months of debate, three bills were passed in an agreement known as the Missouri Compromise, which admitted Missouri as a slave state, Maine as a free state, and prohibited slavery in any territory north of the 36’30’ line.

Changing Views on Slavery

Opponents of slavery ranged from moderates arguing for gradual abolition to radicals demanding an immediate end to slavery. The Second Great Awakening led many Christians to view slavery as a sin, while others were influenced by transcendentalist literature, expanding education, utopian ideals, and/or other reform movements.

American Colonization Society → suggested removing all slaves to their own colony in Liberia
American Anti-slavery Society → condemned the Constitution as a pro-slavery document, advocated for the immediate end to slavery
Liberty Party → wanted to end slavery through political actions

Abolitionists

The abolitionist movement was strengthened by individuals who had escaped bondage and could recount their experiences. These individuals, along with many others, contributed to the cause through their writings, speeches, and activism.

Frederick Douglass: Born into slavery, Douglass escaped bondage and became a powerful orator, writer, and abolitionist. His autobiography, "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave," was a powerful anti-slavery work.
Harriet Tubman: A former slave who escaped to freedom, Tubman became a leading figure in the Underground Railroad—a network of safe houses and secret routes that helped slaves escape to freedom. She made numerous trips back to the South, risking her life to lead others to freedom.
Sojourner Truth: A former slave, Truth became an advocate for abolition and women's rights. Her famous speech, "Ain't I a Woman?" delivered at the Women's Rights Convention in 1851, highlighted the intersectionality of race and gender in the struggle for equality.

Some abolitionists felt change would not come without extreme measures and used violence, arguing that slaves should rise up in revolt against their owners. In 1831, Nat Turner led a slave revolt in Virginia during which 55 whites were killed. In response, whites killed hundreds of African Americans in brutal fashion to discourage further revolts. This ended antislavery talk in the South.

Free but Powerless

By 1860, there were approximately half a million free African Americans living throughout the United States. In the north, they were able to have a family, create churches, and some even owned land, but they were not free from prejudice and discrimination, and had no political representation. In the south, they were free citizens and often lived in cities where they could own property. Just like in the north, they were not equal to whites, but in the south they ran the risk of being kidnapped by slave traders.

Resistance & Rebellion

Conditions for the enslaved varied by plantation, as some masters were more cruel than others, but all were deprived of freedom. Families could be separated by auctions, women were vulnerable to sexual exploitation, and all were expected to perform labor for no wages and provided minimal care. Many slaves resisted by sabotaging equipment, working at a slower place, running away, or rebelling. When word of the successful slave revolt in Haiti led to the creation of an independent black colony, many looked for ways to escape there, while others hoped to follow their example. Any form of rebellion was quickly and violently suppressed, but it encouraged other slaves to resist and made many fearful southerners pass slave codes to prevent further insurrection.

Life in the South

Regional Differences

In the beginning, our nation was divided into distinct regions based on geography, culture, reasons for settlement, religious beliefs, and economic practices largely separated due to lack of efficient transportation. As the United States grew, these regions shifted, but their differences still helped establish distinct divisions between them. In the north, you had manufacturing and trade. In the west, you had settlers making their way in the wild frontier and providing food for the nation. But in the south, everything revolved around cotton.

King Cotton

The southern economy had always been based in agriculture. While a few plantations were still devoted to the cultivation of other cash crops like tobacco, rice, and indigo, the bulk of the south was invested in the cotton industry. Between the new and improved textile mills and the invention of the cotton gin, cloth became more affordable and in high demand. By the 1850s, cotton accounted for ⅔ of all US exports. Cotton was king.

The cotton industry kept slavery alive in the south, quadrupling the population of slaves between 1800 and 1860. Wealth in the south was measured in land and slaves. The more you had of both, the more profitable and powerful you were. Some southern whites knew slavery was wrong, referring to it as “that peculiar institution” which was necessary for economic development. As time passed, they found new arguments from history or the Bible to support their continued enslavement of Africans. Slaves were expected to do whatever their masters demanded of them, and over time southern legislatures passed laws restricting the movement and education of African Americans.

Southern Hierarchy

Aristocracy
- At least 100 slaves & 1000 acres of land
- Dominated politics; enacted laws that benefited large landowners
Farmers
- 20 slaves or less & only a few hundred acres of land
Poor Whites
- No slaves and only enough land for subsistence farming
- Often referred to as “hillbillies” or “white trash”
Mountain People
- Small farmers along the foothills of the Appalachian and Ozark mountains
- Isolated; disliked planters and slavery

Aspects of Southern Culture

Code of Chivalry
- Much like the feudal states in Europe, the aristocracy of the South had set expectations for how southern gentlemen should behave, which included a strong sense of personal honor, defense of womanhood, and paternalistic attitudes to all those deemed inferior.
Education
- Members of the upper class expected their (male) children to attend college, but “acceptable” professions including farmer, lawyer, minister, and/or soldier.
- Schooling for the other classes was limited beyond basic reading, writing, and arithmetic.
- Many states banned teaching slaves to read/write.
Religion
- The issue of slavery divided denominations. Methodists and Baptists supported slavery, leading to an increase in membership. Unitarians opposed slavery, while Catholics and Episcopalians took a neutral stand, so all groups saw a decline in membership and an increase in hostility.
Social Reform
- Southerners were committed to tradition, thus they were slower to support reform efforts.
Code of Chivalry
- Much like the feudal states in Europe, the aristocracy of the South had set expectations for how southern gentlemen should behave, which included a strong sense of personal honor, defense of womanhood, and paternalistic attitudes to all those deemed inferior.
Education
- Members of the upper class expected their (male) children to attend college, but “acceptable” professions including farmer, lawyer, minister, and/or soldier.
- Schooling for the other classes was limited beyond basic reading, writing, and arithmetic.
- Many states banned teaching slaves to read/write.
Religion
- The issue of slavery divided denominations. Methodists and Baptists supported slavery, leading to an increase in membership. Unitarians opposed slavery, while Catholics and Episcopalians took a neutral stand, so all groups saw a decline in membership and an increase in hostility.
Social Reform
- Southerners were committed to tradition, thus they were slower to support reform efforts.

Period 4 Quizlet

Period 4 Kahoot

Period 4

Key Vocabulary

Haitian Revolution: revolt against French rule by free and enslaved black people in the 1790s on the island of Saint Dominque; led to the establishment of the Republic of Haiti, the first independent black-led nation in the Americas in 1803
Louisiana Purchase: U.S. government's 1803 purchase from France of the vast territory stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from New Orleans to present-day Montana, doubling the size of the nation
Corps of Discovery: a specially established unit of the United States Army which formed the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Marbury vs. Madison: 1803 Supreme Court decision that established the authority of the Supreme Court to rule on constitutionality of federal laws
McCulloch vs. Maryland: 1819 Supreme Court decision that reinforced the federal government's ability to employ an expansive understanding of the implied powers clause of the Constitution
judicial review: the Supreme Court's ability to rule on cases at both the federal and state level
Gibbons v. Ogden: Regulating interstate commerce is a power reserved to the federal government
Dartmouth College v. Woodward: 1819 case in which the Supreme Court ruled that states could not interfere with private contracts
implied powers: powers that are not stated explicitly in the constitution
Fletcher v. Peck: Supreme Court case which protected property rights and asserted the right to invalidate state laws in conflict with the Constitution
Era of Good Feelings: time during Monroe's presidency when the country entered a period of national unity.
Tariff of 1816: This protective tariff helped American industry by raising the prices of British manufactured goods, which were often cheaper and of higher quality than those produced in the U.S.
Second Bank of the United States: a national bank overseen by the federal government. Congress had established the bank in 1816, giving it a 20 year charter. The purpose of the bank was to regulate state banks, which had grown rapidly since the First Bank of the US went out of existence in 1811. Went out of existence during Jackson's presidency.
Panic of 1819: Economic panic caused by extensive speculation and a decline of European demand for American goods along with mismanagement within the Second Bank of the United States. Often cited as the end of the Era of Good Feelings.
Tallmadge Amendment: This was an attempt to have no more slaves to be brought to Missouri and provided the gradual emancipation of the children of slaves. In the mind of the South, this was a threat to the sectional balance between North and South.
American System: Economic program advanced by Henry Clay that included support for a national bank, high tariffs, and internal improvements; emphasized strong role for federal government in the economy.
war hawks: Southerners and Westerners who were eager for war with Britain; They had a strong sense of nationalism, and they wanted to takeover British land in North America and expand.
"Quids": In 1812, they were "Old" Democratic-Republicans who criticized the War of 1812 because it violated the classic Democratic-Republican commitment to limited federal power and the maintenance of peace.
Hartford Convention: Meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of 1812 in which the party listed it's complaints against the ruling Republican Party. These actions were largely viewed as traitorous to the country and lost the Federalist much influence
Battle of Tippecanoe: Battle between Americans and Native Americans; Tecumseh and the Prophet attempted to oppress white settlement in the West, but defeated by William Henry Harrison. Led to talk of Canadian invasion and served as a cause to the War of 1812.
Barbary Pirates: Plundering pirates off the Mediterranean coast of Africa; President Thomas Jefferson's refusal to pay them tribute to protect American ships sparked an undeclared naval war with North African nations
impressment: British practice of taking American sailors and forcing them into military service
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: 1807, Brits leopard fired on Chesapeake off coast of Virginia, killed Americans and impressed 4, caused flair of anti-British sentiment
Embargo Act of 1807: This act issued by Jefferson forbade American trading ships from leaving the U.S. It was meant to force Britain and France to change their policies towards neutral vessels by depriving them of American trade. It was difficult to enforce because it was opposed by merchants and everyone else whose livelihood depended upon international trade. It also hurt the national economy, so it was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act.
Nonintercourse Act (1809): Opened trade with all nations except Britain and France.
Macon's Bill No. 2: Aimed at resuming peaceful trade with Britain and France, the act stipulated that if either Britain or France repealed its trade restrictions, the United States would reinstate the embargo against the non-repealing nation. When Napoleon offered to lift his restrictions on British ports, the United States was forced to declare an embargo on Britain, thereby pushing the two nations closer toward war.
War of 1812: A war between the U.S. and Great Britain caused by American outrage over the impressment of American sailors by the British, the British seizure of American ships, and British aid to the Indians attacking the Americans on the western frontier. Also, a war against Britain gave the U.S. an excuse to seize the British northwest posts and to annex Florida from Britain's ally Spain, and possibly even to seize Canada from Britain. The War Hawks (young westerners led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun) argued for war in Congress. The war involved several sea battles and frontier skirmishes. U.S. troops led by Andrew Jackson seized Florida and at one point the British managed to invade and burn Washington, D.C. The Treaty of Ghent (December 1814) restored the status quo and required the U.S. to give back Florida. Two weeks later, Andrew Jackson's troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans, not knowing that a peace treaty had already been signed. The war strengthened American nationalism and encouraged the growth of industry.
Battle of Lake Erie: Battle where a Naval force led by Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British and secured Lake Erie
Battle of the Thames: William Henry Harrison pushed up the river Thames into Upper Canada and on October 4, 1813, won a victory notable for the death of Tecumseh, who was serving as a brigadier general in the British army. This battle resulted in no lasting occupation of Canada, but weakened and disheartened the Indians of the Northwest.
Battle of Lake Champlain: A battle where the British fleet was defeated and was forced to retreat and to abandon their plans to invade New York and New England after being stopped by Thomas Macdonough. The British began to decide that the war was too costly
Battle of Horseshoe Bend: fought during the War of 1812 in central Alabama; On March 27, 1814, United States forces and Indian allies under General Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Sticks, a part of the Creek Indian tribe inspired by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh, effectively ending the Creek War.
Battle of New Orleans: A battle during the War of 1812 where the British army attempted to take New Orleans. Due to the foolish frontal attack, Jackson defeated them, which gave him an enormous popularity boost.
Treaty of Ghent: December 24, 1814 - Ended the War of 1812 and restored the status quo. For the most part, territory captured in the war was returned to the original owner. It also set up a commission to determine the disputed Canada/U.S. border.
Rush-Bagot Agreement: 1817 agreement that limited American and British naval forces on the Great Lakes
Treaty of 1818: Treaty between Britain and America, it allowed the Americans to share the Newfoundland fisheries with Canada, and gave both countries a joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for the next 10 years.
Florida Purchase Treaty: 1819 - Under the Adams-Onis Treaty, Spain sold Florida to the U.S., and the U.S. gave up its claims to Texas. gave American southwest to Spain
Monroe Doctrine: an American foreign policy opposing interference in the Western hemisphere from outside powers
"The Star-Spangled Banner": national anthem written by Francis Scott Key during the war of 1812
Market Revolution: Drastic changes in transportation (canals, RRs), communication (telegraph), and the production of goods (more in factories as opposed to houses) experienced in the US between 1750-1850
Lancaster Turnpike: road built in the 1790s by a private company, linking Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Cumberland Road: A national road that stretched from Maryland to Illinois. It was the first national/interstate highway, and it was a milestone for the eventual connection of all the states by highways, thus increasing trade.
Erie Canal: A canal between the New York cities of Albany and Buffalo, completed in 1825. Considered a marvel of the modern world at the time, it allowed western farmers to ship surplus crops to sell in the North and allowed northern manufacturers to ship finished goods to sell in the West.
interchangeable parts: Identical components that can be used in place of one another in manufacturing
factory system: A method of production that brought many workers and machines together into one building
Lowell System: Dormitories for young women where they were cared for, fed, and sheltered in return for cheap labor, mill towns, homes for workers to live in around the mills
unions: An association of workers, formed to bargain for better working conditions and higher wages.
cotton gin: A machine for cleaning the seeds from cotton fibers, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793
corporations: businesses that are owned by many investors who buy shares of stock
"King Caucus": an informal meeting held in the nineteenth century, sometimes called a congressional caucus, made up of legislators in the Congress who met to decide on presidential nominees for their respective parties
Anti-Masonic Party: First founded in New York, it gained considerable influence in New England and the mid-Atlantic during the 1832 election, campaigning against the politically influential Masonic order, a secret society. Anti-Masons opposed Andrew Jackson, a Mason, and drew much of their support from evangelical Protestants.
spoils system: A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends
Indian Removal Act: (1830) a congressional act that authorized the removal of Native Americans who lived east of the Mississippi River
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: (1831) The Cherokees argued that they were a separate nation and therefore not under Georgia's jurisdiction. Marshall said they were not, but rather had "special status"
Worchester v. Georgia: supreme court ruled that Georgia law could not be enforced in the Cherokee nation; led to Cherokee removal and the Trail of Tears
Trail of Tears: the forced removal of Cherokees and their transportation to Oklahoma during which many Indians died of disease, exposure, and exhaustion
"pet banks": A term used by Jackson's opponents to describe the state banks that the federal government used for new revenue deposits in an attempt to destroy the Second Bank of the United States; the practice continued after the charter for the Second Bank expired in 1836.
Panic of 1837: When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money that had been withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S. These banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands. Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the payment for federal lands with gold or silver. Many state banks collapsed as a result. A panic ensued (1837). Bank of the U.S. failed, cotton prices fell, businesses went bankrupt, and there was widespread unemployment and distress.
"corrupt bargain": Refers to the presidential election of 1824 in which Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, convinced the House of Representatives to elect Adams rather than Jackson.
Tariff of Abominations: Tariff passed by Congress in 1828 that favored manufacturing in the North and was hated by the South
Revolution of 1828: Jackson's election showed shift of political power to "the common man" , when the government changed hands from Quincy Adams to Jackson
Specie Circular: issued by President Jackson July 11, 1836, was meant to stop land speculation caused by states printing paper money without proper specie (gold or silver) backing it. It required that the purchase of public lands be paid for in specie. It stopped the land speculation and the sale of public lands went down sharply. The panic of 1837 followed.
Peggy Eaton Affair: Social scandal (1829-1831) - John Eaton, Secretary of War, stayed with the Timberlakes when in Washington, and there were rumors of his affair with Peggy Timberlake even before her husband died in 1828. Many cabinet members snubbed the socially unacceptable Mrs. Eaton. Jackson sided with the Eatons, and the affair helped to dissolve the cabinet - especially those members associated with John C. Calhoun (V.P.), who was against the Eatons and had other problems with Jackson.
Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign: The term for the 1840 presidential campaign. Popular war hero, William Henry Harrison was the Whig candidate. He used log cabins and hard cider to portray his down-home heritage. He attacked Martin Van Buren as an aristocrat. Harrison and John Tyler won the election. (p. 199)
Nullification Crisis: A sectional crisis during the presidency of Andrew Jackson created by the Ordinance of Nullification, an attempt by the state of South Carolina to nullify a federal law - the tariff of 1828 - passed by the United States Congress
Webster-Hayne debate: Hayne first responded to Daniel Webster's argument of states' rights versus national power, with the idea of nullification. Webster then spent 2 full afternoons delivering his response which he concluded by saying that "Liberty and Union, now and for ever, one and inseparable"
Whigs: conservatives and popular with pro-Bank people and plantation owners; mainly came from the National Republican Party, which was once largely Federalists. They took their name from the British political party that had opposed King George during the American Revolution. Their policies included support of industry, protective tariffs, and Clay's American System. They were generally upper class in origin. Included Clay and Webster
utopia: an ideal society
Shakers: a celibate and communistic Christian sect in the United States
Amana Colonies: A German religious communal movement in Ohio which emphasized simple living
New Harmony: A utopian settlement in Indiana lasting from 1825 to 1827. It had 1,000 settlers, but a lack of authority caused it to break up.
Fourier Phalanxes: a place set up by Charles Fourier to end competition in society, live in shared conditions, everything communal design so no advantages; not successful
Oneida Community: A group of socio-religious perfectionists who lived in New
York. Practiced polygamy, communal property, and communal raising of children.
Known for creating impressive silverware which funded their utopian settlement.
antebellum: Belonging to a period before a war especially the American Civil War
Transcendentalists: Followers of a belief which stressed self-reliance, self-culture, self-discipline, and that knowledge transcends instead of coming by reason. They promoted the belief of individualism and caused an array of humanitarian reforms.
Brook Farm: A transcendentalist Utopian experiment, put into practice by transcendentalist former Unitarian minister George Ripley at a farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, at that time nine miles from Boston. The community, in operation from 1841 to 1847, was inspired by the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier. Fourierism was the belief that there could be a utopian society where people could share together to have a better lifestyle.
Hudson River School: Founded by Thomas Cole, first native school of landscape painting in the U.S.; attracted artists rebelling against the neoclassical tradition, painted many scenes of New York's Hudson River
Second Great Awakening: A series of religious revivals starting in 1801, based on Methodism and Baptism. Stressed a religious philosophy of salvation through good deeds and tolerance for all Protestant sects. The revivals attracted women, Blacks, and Native Americans.
revivalism: a new era of religious leaders who preached and wrote books denouncing the evils of popular entertainment and alcohol
New Zion: This was a religious community established by the Mormons on the banks of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.
temperance: restraint or moderation, especially in regards to alcohol or food
American Temperance Society: An organization group in which reformers are trying to help the ever present drink problem. This group was formed in Boston in 1826, and it was the first well-organized group created to deal with the problems drunkards had on societies well being, and the possible well-being of the individuals that are heavily influenced by alcohol.
Washingtonians: Temperance movement which involved relying on each other, sharing alcoholic experiences and relying upon divine help, to help keep each other sober. Total abstinence from alcohol was their goal. The group taught sobriety and preceded Alcoholics Anonymous by 100 years.
asylum movement: reformers proposed setting up new public institutions such as state-supported prisons, mental hospitals, and poorhouses; hope was that the inmates of these institutions would be cured of their antisocial behavior by being treated to a disciplined pattern of life in some rural setting
Auburn system: Prison reform in 1790, based on concept that solitary confinement would induce meditation and moral reform; actually led to many mental breakdowns; Auburn system, 1816, allowed congregation of prisoners during the day
Horace Mann: Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education; "Father of the public school system"; a prominent proponent of public school reform, & set the standard for public schools throughout the nation; lengthened academic year; pro training & higher salaries to teachers
Dorothea Dix: A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendent of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.
McGuffey Readers: One of the first known textbooks, it is estimated that at least 120 million copies sold between 1836 and 1960, sell about 30,000 copies a year. Still in use today in some school systems, and by parents for home schooling purposes.
Seneca Falls Convention: (1848) the first national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written
American Colonization Society: Formed in 1817, it purchased a tract of land in Liberia and returned free Blacks to Africa.
American Peace Society: Founded in 1828 by William Laddit. Formally condemned all wars, though it supported the U.S. government during the Civil War, WWI, and WWII. It was dissolved after the United Nations was formed in 1945.
American Antislavery Society: Founded in 1833 by William Lloyd Garrison and other abolitionists. Garrison burned the Constitution as a proslavery document. Argued for "no Union with slaveholders" until they repented for their sins by freeing their slaves.
abolition: The movement to make slavery and the slave trade illegal. Begun by Quakers in England in the 1780s.
Liberty Party: A former political party in the United States; formed in 1839 to oppose the practice of slavery; merged with the Free Soil Party in 1848
cult of domesticity: idealized view of women & home; women, self-less caregiver for children, refuge for husbands
slave codes: Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights.
Southern Code of Chivalry: the South's romantic idea of male-female relationships—glorified the lady while it subordinated her
King Cotton: Expression used by Southern authors and orators before Civil War to indicate economic dominance of Southern cotton industry, and that North needed South's cotton. Coined by James Hammond
peculiar institution: A euphemism for slavery and the economic ramifications of it in the American South. The term aimed to explain away the seeming contradiction of legalized slavery in a country whose Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal". It was one of the key causes of the Civil War.

Key People

John Quincy Adams: the 6th President of the United States, serving from 1825 to 1829, the son of President John Adams and played a key role in American diplomacy and foreign policy; known for his advocacy of American expansion and his support for infrastructure projects such as the construction of roads and canals.
Susan B. Anthony: social reformer who campaigned for women's rights, the temperance, and was an abolitionist, helped form the National Woman Suffrage Association
Napoleon Bonaparte: a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, became First Consul of France in 1799 and later Emperor of the French in 1804. He is known for his military genius and his ambitious campaigns to expand French territory. He implemented significant reforms in France, including the Napoleonic Code, but his aggressive foreign policies eventually led to his downfall and exile.
Aaron Burr: one of the leading Democratic-Republicans of New York, and served as a U.S. Senator from New York from 1791-1797. He was the principal opponent of Alexander Hamilton's Federalist policies; In the election of 1800, he tied with Jefferson in the Electoral College. The House of Representatives awarded the Presidency to Jefferson and made him Vice- President, but Jefferson's distaste for him led to the 12th amendment and his removal from VP in Jefferson's 2nd term. Outrage over this event led him to plot various coups, all of which failed.
John C. Calhoun: an American statesman and political theorist who served as Vice President of the United States under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson, a leading advocate for states' rights and slavery, arguing that the federal government should not interfere with the institution of slavery; played a significant role in the Nullification Crisis of 1832, in which South Carolina attempted to nullify federal tariffs.
William Clark: an American explorer and soldier who is best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, helped to lead the first overland expedition to the western coast of the United States, exploring and mapping the newly acquired Louisiana Territory; later served as the Superintendent of Indian Affairs and as a territorial governor.
Henry Clay: an American statesman and politician who played a prominent role in the early 19th century; served as Speaker of the House of Representatives, Secretary of State, and represented Kentucky in both the Senate and the House. Known for his skill in negotiation and compromise, earning him the nickname the "Great Compromiser:, he played a key role in the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850, both of which aimed to address the issue of slavery in the United States.
John Deere: Invented the steel plow
Frederick Douglass: an African American social reformer, abolitionist, and writer; Born into slavery, he escaped to the North and became a prominent speaker and writer, advocating for the abolition of slavery and equal rights for African Americans.
Ralph Waldo Emerson: an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who was a leading figure in the Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century; championed the idea of individualism and self-reliance and emphasized the importance of nature and intuition in spiritual and intellectual growth.
Charles Grandison Finney: an American Presbyterian minister and leader of the Second Great Awakening, a religious revival movement in the early 19th century known for his passionate preaching and his emphasis on personal conversion and moral reform; played a significant role in the abolitionist movement and advocated for a range of social reforms, including temperance and women's rights.
Robert Fulton: American inventor who designed the first commercially successful steamboat and the first steam warship (1765-1815)
William Lloyd Garrison: an American abolitionist and journalist who was a prominent leader in the fight against slavery, best known as the publisher of the anti-slavery newspaper "The Liberator," which he founded in 1831; advocated for the immediate and uncompensated emancipation of enslaved individuals and was a key figure in the formation of the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Grimke Sisters: were 19th-century American Quakers, educators and writers who were early advocates of abolitionism and women's rights.
William Henry Harrison: was the 9th President of the United States, serving for only 31 days in 1841, was a military officer and politician who achieved fame as a key figure in the Battle of Tippecanoe during the War of 1812. His presidency was cut short by his death from pneumonia, making him the shortest-serving president in U.S. history.
Sam Houston: an American soldier and politician who played a crucial role in the history of Texas, served as the first and third President of the Republic of Texas and later as a U.S. Senator and Governor of Texas; known for his leadership in the Texas Revolution and his efforts to secure Texas's annexation to the United States.
Andrew Jackson: the 7th President of the United States, serving from 1829 to 1837; a military hero and politician who became known as the champion of the common man. His presidency was marked by his efforts to expand democracy and confront powerful interests, such as the Second Bank of the United States; also known for his controversial policies toward Native Americans, including the Indian Removal Act of 1830.
Thomas Jefferson: the 3rd President of the United States, serving from 1801 to 1809, was a Founding Father and principal author of the Declaration of Independence; played a key role in the early years of the United States, including the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the country. He was also a strong advocate for religious freedom and education.
Meriwether Lewis: an American explorer and soldier who is best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition; helped to lead the first overland expedition to the western coast of the United States, exploring and mapping the newly acquired Louisiana Territory. Lewis later served as the Governor of the Louisiana Territory.
Toussaint L'Ouverture: a Haitian revolutionary leader who led the successful slave revolt against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, which eventually became the independent nation of Haiti. L'Ouverture played a crucial role in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic in the Western Hemisphere. He is considered a national hero in Haiti and an icon in the struggle for freedom and equality.
William Marbury: an American businessman and political figure who is best known for the landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison. In 1803, Marbury sued James Madison, the Secretary of State, for failing to deliver his commission as a justice of the peace under the Judiciary Act of 1801. The case established the principle of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
John Marshall: an American statesman and jurist who served as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 to 1835, played a significant role in shaping American constitutional law and establishing the authority of the Supreme Court. Decisions, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland, expanded the powers of the federal government and strengthened the supremacy of the Constitution.
Cyrus McCormick: Invented the mechanical reaper
James Monroe: the 5th President of the United States, serving from 1817 to 1825, known for his contributions to the Monroe Doctrine, which declared that the United States would not tolerate European interference in the affairs of the independent nations of the Americas. His presidency was also marked by the acquisition of Florida from Spain and the Missouri Compromise, which temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in the western territories.
Samuel F. B. Morse: an American inventor and painter who is best known for his invention of the telegraph and the Morse code. The telegraph revolutionized communication and played a crucial role in the development of the modern telecommunications industry.
James K. Polk: the 11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849, known for his expansionist policies, which included the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Treaty with Great Britain, and the Mexican-American War. His presidency was marked by significant territorial gains for the United States, including the acquisition of California and the Southwest.
Sacagawea: a Shoshone woman who played a vital role as a guide and interpreter for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In 1804, she joined the expedition with her husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, and their infant son. Her knowledge of the land, her ability to communicate with Native American tribes, and her bravery were instrumental in the success of the expedition.
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna: a Mexican military officer and politician who served as the President of Mexico multiple times during the 19th century; played a significant role in Mexican history, including the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War.
Winfield Scott: a United States Army general who served in the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, and the early stages of the American Civil War; known for his military strategy and his role in capturing Mexico City during the Mexican-American War.
Samuel Slater: an English-born American industrialist who is known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution" as he established the first successful cotton-spinning factory in the United States, using the spinning machinery he had memorized while working in British textile mills.
Joseph Smith: an American religious leader and the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, which includes the Mormon Church. In 1830, he published the Book of Mormon, which he claimed to have translated from golden plates given to him by an angel. It served as the foundation for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and had a significant impact on American religious history.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: an American suffragist, abolitionist, and social reformer who played a crucial role in the women's rights movement; one of the organizers of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, where the Declaration of Sentiments was drafted, calling for women's rights and suffrage. Her advocacy for women's rights and her partnership with Susan B. Anthony were instrumental in advancing the cause of gender equality.
Zachary Taylor: the 12th President of the United States, serving from 1849 until his death in 1850; a career military officer and a national hero from the Mexican-American War. His presidency was marked by debates over the expansion of slavery and the admission of new states to the Union. He died in office after only 16 months, making him the second president to die in office.
Tecumseh: a Native American Shawnee warrior and chief who played a significant role in resisting American expansion into Native American territory during the early 19th century, formed a confederacy of Native American tribes to oppose white settlement, and he fought alongside the British during the War of 1812.
Henry David Thoreau: an American essayist, poet, and philosopher who is best known for his book "Walden" and his essay "Civil Disobedience"; advocated for a simple and self-reliant lifestyle and emphasized the importance of nature and individual freedom. His writings had a significant influence on American transcendentalism and environmentalism.
Sojourner Truth: United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women (1797-1883)
Nat Turner: an enslaved African American preacher who led a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831, resulted in the deaths of approximately 55 to 65 white people and led to a widespread crackdown on enslaved individuals in the South. The rebellion had a significant impact on the national debate over slavery and contributed to the growing tensions between abolitionists and pro-slavery advocates.
John Tyler: the 10th President of the United States, serving from 1841 to 1845; assumed the presidency after the death of President William Henry Harrison, making him the first vice president to become president due to the death of the incumbent. His presidency was marked by conflicts with his own party, the Whigs, and he ultimately broke with them over issues such as the national bank and internal improvements; also oversaw the annexation of Texas during his presidency.
Martin Van Buren: the 8th President of the United States, serving from 1837 to 1841; a key figure in the development of the modern Democratic Party and is often credited with establishing the party's political organization and ideology.
Eli Whitney: an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin, a machine that revolutionized the cotton industry and a profound impact on the economy of the southern United States, contributing to the expansion of slavery as it made cotton production more profitable.
Brigham Young: an American religious leader and the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as the LDS Church or the Mormon Church; played a pivotal role in the Mormon migration to the western United States and led the settlement of the Salt Lake Valley in what is now Utah.

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