In the 1840s, westward expansion led Americans to acquire all lands from the Atlantic to Pacific in a movement called “Manifest Destiny”. The term  itself was first used by journalist John L. O'Sullivan in an article in 1845, who argued that it was the "manifest destiny of our country to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us." Expansionists believed that America was destined by God and history to expand its boundaries as far as they could go, starting with the North American continent. As more land was obtained through negotiation or war, Americans flooded into the West for new economic opportunities. 

• The U.S. gained Texas, Oregon, California, & other territories through treaty or war.

• Changes in the early Antebellum era (1800-1840) encouraged westward expansion in the 1840s

• The growth of “King Cotton” & commercial farming led to a desire for more western lands

• Improved transportation such as canals, steamboats, & railroads increased speed & profitability; made settling and living in the west less of a daunting and formidable task

Mexico initially encouraged American emigration into the area we know as Texas with the hopes of strengthening their economy and to serve as buffer against indigenous populations. Soil used for cotton cultivation led to interest in Texas, and Americans flooded in.

Tensions grew between the American settlers and the Mexican government due to cultural differences, minimal local autonomy, and the issue of slavery. The conflict escalated into the Texas Revolution in 1835, culminating in the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836. Texas forces, led by Sam Houston, defeated Mexican forces, and Texas declared independence. Following this victory, Texas declared itself an independent republic. Sam Houston became the first president of the Republic of Texas.

After Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled northern border disputes with Canada, President Tyler made Texas a priority. The Lone Star Republic was rejected admission for about 10 years over the issue of slavery. With the support of President-elect Polk, Tyler got a joint resolution passed and Texas was admitted into the union in 1845.

The concept of “manifest destiny” played a significant role in the Election of 1844, influencing the political discourse and candidates' positions on westward expansion. The election featured two major candidates, Democrat James K. Polk and Whig Henry Clay, both of whom addressed the issue of westward expansion and the annexation of Texas. Both Democrats and some Whigs were influenced by the belief in the inevitability and righteousness of American territorial expansion. 

Democrats, particularly Polk, were strong advocates of the annexation, and his campaign slogan was "54-40 or Fight," referring to the latitude line they hoped would become the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory. Clay attempted to appeal to both Northern and Southern voters within the Whig party, but James K. Polk won the election and assumed the presidency in 1845. One of Polk's first acts as president was to work towards the annexation of Texas. In December 1845, Texas officially became a state through a joint resolution of the U.S. Congress.

The Oregon Territory Dispute involved a longstanding disagreement between the United States and Britain over the vast region known as the Oregon Country. This territory extended from the Pacific Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. The primary points of contention revolved around which country had rightful claims to the territory and where the boundary should be established. Britain and the U.S. claimed rights to territory through “joint occupation” Treaty of 1818. Religious zeal led to increased emigration overrunning British and deaths of indigenous peoples.  

The United States and Britain reached a compromise with the signing of the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary between the United States and British North America (Canada) from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. This compromise divided the Oregon Country roughly in half.

In 1848, gold was found in the hills of the Sierra Nevada, leading to a huge population increase as gold rush migrants known as 49ers came from all over the world hoping to find their fortunes. The influx of people led to the establishment of a diverse economy to support the growing population. Mining, agriculture, trade, and services like banking and entertainment flourished, contributing to California's economic development. The California Gold Rush spurred rapid urbanization as miners and settlers established towns and cities almost overnight. The demand for infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and ports, increased to support the growing population and facilitate the movement of goods. Chinese immigrants, in particular, played a significant role in mining and other industries during this period.

With acres of farmland producing a surplus of crops and the rapid industrialization manufacturing goods, both of which could be easily transported by railroads to major cities, there was a large growth of imports and exports, expanding US trade.

• Shipping firms encouraged trade & travel across the Atlantic, helped standardize time to maintain schedules, and led to improvements in shipbuilding

• Demand for whale oil increased as they were used to light the homes of America

• Expanded trade with Asia gave Americans access to goods like silk, porcelain, and tea; accomplished through a show of force by Matthew Perry and perpetuated by the Kanagawa Treaty

As the nation stretched from Atlantic to Pacific, its economy also experienced growth, largely due to technological advances made in previous decades.

• Industrial Technology

  • Factory systems spread from New England to all of the northeast, producing everyday items in mass quantities, allowing for quality goods to made quickly and inexpensively 

  • Sewing machine allowed for fast production of clothing in a factory setting

  • Telegraph sped up communication as railroads made travel/shipping faster

• Railroads

  • Canals were replaced by railroads, becoming America’s largest industry and connecting all regions to each other

  • Local merchants and farmers would buy stock in railroad companies in order to connect their products to various markets

  • Local and state governments gave tax breaks, while the federal government granted land specifically for the construction of railroads

Southerners were anxious to find and conquer new land for the cultivation of crops through slave labor, which would help solidify the practice as abolitionists protested it and increase their majority in Congress. 

• Ostend Manifesto: Southern expansionists sought to acquire Cuba, so President Polk offered to buy it from Spain, but they refused. When President Franklin Pierce took office, he secretly negotiated to buy Cuba from Spain. When these plans were leaked, outraged antislavery members of Congress forced Pierce to drop it.

• Walker Expedition: Southern adventurer William Walker tried to establish a proslavery empire in Central America, but failed.

• After concluding that there was no waterway that crossed the entirety of the North American continent, some looked to manufacture one by building a canal in Central America. This would help reduce shipping costs and expand trade. Britain had a similar ambition, so instead both parties agreed that neither would attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal route for the remainder of the century - Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. 

• Although he failed to gain Cuba, President Pierce was still interested in expansion, and successfully negotiated the purchase of a small strip of land from Mexico which would allow for a new railroad route to be built. The Gadsden Purchase helped the US acquire the present-day states of Arizona and the remainder of New Mexico. 

The Mexican-American War, which took place between 1846 and 1848, was a conflict between the United States and Mexico that had profound consequences for both nations. Several causes contributed to the outbreak of the war, and its effects had far-reaching implications for the territorial expansion of the United States and the relationship between the two countries.

Causes:

• Territorial disputes

• Manifest Destiny

• Polk’s aggressive policies 

Effects:

• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• Wilmot Proviso

• Sectional Tensions

• Gadsden Purchase

• Rise of abolitionism

The Mexican-American war was a disaster for Mexico, especially as the government refused to consider peace terms until they had no other choice. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and greatly benefitted the US:

• Rio Grande is the southern border of Texas

• US gained the territories of California and New Mexico (Mexican Cession)

• Whigs disapproved the treaty because they believed it to be a ploy to expand slavery west, while Democrats were annoyed the US didn’t take over all of Mexico. 

For decades, the issue of slavery had been continually brushed off as a problem for future Americans. As the nation expanded, however, the issue became a major point of contention and debate. No policy would make all involved happy, so it was a constant battle of sacrifice and compromise to prevent the dissolution of the union. 

• Free Soil Movement (Northern Democrats & Whigs)

  • Argued for slavery to remain in the south but not spread west with the acquisition of new territory, as this allowed for whites to have more job opportunities

• Southerners (Wealthy plantation owners & Southern Democrats)

  • Viewed attempts to restrict slavery as a violation of their constitutional rights

  • Would allow for the expansion of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific separated lands into slave and free

• Popular Sovereignty (Westerners)

  • Allow citizens of each territory to vote on whether their state would allow slavery - popular sovereignty

The expansion of slavery into the western territories was the main topic during the election of 1848. Democrats nominated Senator Lewis Cass of the popular sovereignty movement, the Free Soil Party nominated former president Martin Van Buren, and the Whigs nominated war hero Zachary Taylor, who took no stand on the issue of slavery. Taylor narrowly defeated Cass to become the nation’s 12th president. 

During Taylor’s first year in office, gold was discovered in California, leading to a population boom which gave them the requirements for statehood. Despite being a Southern plantation owner himself and the grumblings of southern “fire-eaters”, Taylor supported California in its quest to be admitted as a free state.

Taylor’s motion to allow California and New Mexico to enter the union as free states sparked talks of secession in the south, so the great negotiator Henry Clay came in with yet another plan to solve the impending crisis - the Compromise of 1850. 

• Admit CA as a free state

• Divide the remaining land from the Mexican Cession into two territories (NM & UT) which would vote on the issue of slavery (popular sovereignty)

• Ban the slave trade in DC (current slaveholders would be allowed to own slaves)

• Adopt a new Fugitive Slave Law & vigorously enforce it

• Give disputed land to New Mexico and assume $10 million of Texas’ debt

As with all compromises, no one got exactly what they wanted and many openly opposed it. It wasn’t passed until Millard Fillmore succeeded to the presidency after the sudden death of Taylor. Stephen Douglas broke up the compromise into individual bills which Fillmore readily signed into law. 

Another issue that divided the country was immigration, as millions of immigrants flooded into the United States. Some believed the immigrants added to the diverse fabric of America, but many others were threatened by their religious and cultural practices and feared competition for low wage employment. 

• Irish

  • Almost half of all immigrants came from Ireland, driven out by the famine of the 1840s

  • Minimal skills and money, but spoke English and understood electoral politics

  • Largely Roman Catholic

  • Slowly developed neighborhoods & newspapers, eventually moved into politics

• Germans

  • Over 1 million Germans were driven out by economic hardships and democratic revolutions

  • Agricultural and trade skills, modest means

  • Roman Catholic or Lutheran

  • Supported education, opposed slavery

The influx of immigrants alarmed many native-born Americans, who feared their beliefs would change the country and take their jobs. Nativism, or the policy of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants, garnered widespread support during this time. Some businesses refused to hire or service immigrants, landlords increased rent for foreign-born tenants, and local governments added obstacles to taking political office or voting. 

• Nativists formed their own political party - the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (America Party), which was more commonly referred to as the Know-Nothing Party. 

• American Indians and Mexican Americans absorbed by expansionist efforts were also targeted by nativist policies and often faced discrimination for their religious beliefs. 

• Sporadic rioting in cities, especially over religious tensions.

By 1861, politicians were trying anything and everything to prevent war while keeping their constituents happy. Unfortunately, three large issues, all related to slavery, divided the North & South:

• Attitudes about the morality of slavery

• Views about the constitutional rights of states

• Differences over economic policies between the free-labor industrial North and the slave-labor agricultural South

Many hoped the Compromise of 1850 would ease political tensions for a time, and it did, but it was not meant to last. Abolitionists spread literature and gave emotional speeches about the evils of slavery, while slave owners threatened secession if their right to own slaves was taken away, as their livelihood depended on slave labor.

• Fugitive Slave Law: While the inclusion of this law is what convinced southerners to admit CA as a free state, northerners bitterly resented a law they believed infringed on their rights and beliefs. As it was a federal law, local and state governments were forced to adhere to it, even when its citizens disagreed with the practice. Their opposition was seen in court cases, protests, and even violence.

• Underground Railroad: To circumvent the Fugitive Slave Law and other laws like it, a network of abolitionists worked together to usher slaves into freedom by establishing safe houses (“stations”) and assigning guides (“conductors”) to bring escaped slaves north. Of all those involved, the most famous was Harriet Tubman, who after escaping slavery herself, made another 19 trips to and from the south, bring over 300 slaves to freedom.

• Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this influential novel portrayed all slave owners are cruel and inhuman, bringing many to join the abolitionist cause. Southerners dismissed the novel, claiming that it was based on prejudice, not truth.

• Impending Crisis of the South: Hinton R. Helper’s non-fiction novel provided an economic argument against slavery, and was quickly banned in most southern states as it was widely distributed in the north. 

Southerners had no intention of changing their way of life, especially over the issue of slavery. They would publish literature of their own, arguing that slavery was beneficial for both the slave and the master, that there was justification for slavery in the Bible, and that the Constitution permitted the practice to continue. Mary Eastman wrote a response to Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin called Aunt Phyllis’s Cabin, which portrayed slave owners as kind and slaves as happy. Some southerners argued that the lives provided to slaves were better than those provided to those free men slaving away in the factories or mines of the north for pitiful wages. Others questioned why equal rights was a topic of conversation in regards to “unequal men”. With this, slavery shifted from being an economic issue to a moral one. 

Slavery weakened and divided the political parties of the time, as some refused to take a stand while others isolated their members by taking a firm stance for or against the practice. In the Election of 1852, the Whigs nominated Winfield Scott and focused on improving roads and harbors while ignoring the issue of the slavery. The Democrats nominated a compromise candidate, Franklin Pierce, as he was a northerner but supported the Fugitive Slave Law. He won all but 4 states to become the 14th president. 

With the Democrats in power, senator Stephen A. Douglas (IL) proposed a transcontinental railroad with Chicago as a major hub to unite the west and promote the value of his real estate. Southerners wanted the line to be further south. To earn their support, Douglas introduced a bill to divide the Nebraska territory into two parts (NE & KS) and allow citizens to vote on the issue of slavery. This ignored the previous line established by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, but the Kansas-Nebraska Act was signed into law by President Pierce in 1854. 

To prevent the expansion of slavery, northern abolitionists and free-soilers helped antislavery settlers move to the new territory just as southerners rushed to put pro-slavery settlers there to ensure slavery’s survival. Inevitably, fighting broke out among the competing groups, and the territory became known as “Bleeding Kansas”. 

Violence over the issue of slavery was not confined the the territories, but was even witnessed in the halls of Congress. In a passionate but highly critical speech, Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner attacked the actions of South Carolina, specifically those of their senator Andrew Butler. Defending his uncle’s honor, Congressman Preston Brooks walked into the Senate chamber and brutally beat Sumner with his cane. While the north was outraged by Brooks’ actions and the House voted to censure him, those in the South hailed him as a hero and defender of their way of life. This small act showed the growing passions on both sides and suggested war was on the horizon. 

As previously mentioned, the issue of slavery divided political parties. With the Whig party broken, the ex-members scattered. Those fearing immigration joined the Know-Nothings, while those that supported the expansion of slavery joined the Democrats. Those former Whigs who opposed slavery, however, formed the new Republican Party in Wisconsin in 1854. Joined by Free-Soilers and anti-slavery Democrats, Republicans were focused on preventing the spread of slavery and repealing both the Kansas-Nebraska act and the Fugitive Slave Act. Although many joined the party as violence increased in Kansas, it was a strictly northern or sectional party. 

The Republicans’ first test came with the election of 1856 when they nominated CA senator and renowned “pathfinder” John C. Fremont. The Know-Nothings supported previous president Millard Fillmore, while the Democrats nominated James Buchanan. As the only major political party, the Democrats won both the popular and electoral vote, but the other candidates had a decent showing of support. Fremont, who carried 11 of the 16 free states, helped Republicans realize that they could win the White House without a single Southern vote.

Dred Scott was a slave who had been taken by his owner to live in free territories (Illinois and Wisconsin) and a free state (Minnesota) before returning to Missouri, a slave state. Scott sued for his freedom, arguing that his residence in free territories and states made him legally free. 

The central question before the Supreme Court was whether Dred Scott, as a black person, could be considered a U.S. citizen with the right to sue in federal court. The Court ruled that individuals, including slaves, were considered property, and the Fifth Amendment protected property rights. Congress could not prohibit the spread of slavery into any territory, rendering the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. The Dred Scott Decision, as the event is commonly called, deepened the sectional divide over the issue of slavery, infuriating anti-slavery activists, who saw it as a pro-slavery and pro-South ruling.

As Republicans gained more support, Southerners started to fear for their economy and way of life, especially when abolitionists turned violent. John Brown, a radical abolitionist, led a small group of followers to attack the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry in Virginia. His plan was to steal the weapons and give them to local slaves for the purpose of overthrowing their masters by any means necessary. Unfortunately, Brown was captured by federal troops under the command of Robert E. Lee. Brown and six of his followers were tried for treason and hanged. The North hailed Brown as a martyr, while the South viewed him as a terrorist. 

As the next election approached, it was made clear to every American that the fate of the Union rest on the next president. Democrats, split over the issue of slavery, nominated Stephen A. Douglas (platform of popular sovereignty) and VP John C. Breckenridge (unrestricted expansion of slavery & annexation of Cuba). Seeing an advantage with a broken Democratic party, the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln (no spread of slavery), a skilled orator and favorite in the western territories. Fearing a Republican victory, a group of former Whigs, Know-Nothings, and moderate Democrats formed the Constitutional Union Party. This new party nominated John Bell, pledging to enforce the Constitution as it is and preserve the Union. Lincoln won only 39.8% of the popular vote, but carried 59% of electoral votes, securing his place as the nation’s 16th president. 

Buchanan was considered a “lame duck president” because he was not reelected (or even nominated) and had to maintain the office until the next president was inaugurated. Lincoln wouldn’t be inaugurated until spring of 1861, so Buchanan oversaw the dissolution of the Union and did nothing to stop it. 

Meanwhile Congress made attempts to prevent secession. Kentucky senator John Crittenden proposed a constitutional amendment that would guarantee the right to hold slaves in territories below the old Missouri Compromise line, but Lincoln stated he wouldn’t sign off on it. 

Although Republicans did not control the Senate or Supreme Court, Southerners feared Lincoln’s presidency and called a convention to discuss the issue of secession. South Carolina unanimously voted to secede in a special convention held in December of 1860, citing the need to protect the institution of slavery. Within a few weeks, they were joined by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. 

In February of 1861, representatives of these seven states met in Montgomery, AL and created the Confederate States of America. They elected Jefferson Davis as president, Alexander Stephens as vice president, and drafted a constitution similar to the one they separated from except they added limits to the power of the central government to ensure slavery would never end.

In Lincoln’s inaugural address, he stated that he had no intention of interfering with the practice of slavery where it existed, but wished to prevent its spread. Furthermore, he claimed that no state had the right to break up the Union.

Primarily caused by regional tensions, economic differences, and the issue of slavery, the American Civil War took place between 1861 and 1865. It was the costliest war in US history, resulting in the deaths of over 750,000 people and billions of dollars in supplies, damages, and eventual restoration. The war also accelerated industrialization of the North, demonstrating that modern society would focus on technology more than agriculture. Finally, the war led to the freedom of over 4 million slaves, beginning another shift in the nation’s idea of equality. 

Seeing war as an inevitability, federal forts became a point of importance, as many of them were positioned in the newly seceded southern states. One of these was Fort Sumter in harbor of Charleston, SC. Not wanting to engage, Lincoln sent provisions to the fort so troops could hold out. South Carolina was forced to choose - let Lincoln continue to have the fort or open fire. They chose the latter, and on April 12, 1861, the American Civil War began. 

After it was clear Lincoln would use troops to preserve the Union, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded and joined the Confederacy. The decision was controversial, just as it was for those that had seceded previously, but wealthy plantation owners had the power to ensure their way of life was maintained. Furthermore, the capital of the Confederacy was moved to Richmond, VA, helping secure the allegiance of the new Confederate states and providing an advantageous position to encourage the border states to leave the Union. 

Four slave-holding states remained loyal to the Union - Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky. This was largely due to shrewd federal policies that benefited them and a pro-Union sentiment following pro-secessionist attacks on federal troops. 

Keeping the border states in the Union was Lincoln’s top priority. Losing them would greatly increase the Confederacy’s population while weakening the Union’s strategic position. To keep these states on his side, Lincoln rejected the idea of emancipation. 

• Republicans controlled both houses of Congress, but split into several factions

  • Radical Republicans demanded immediate abolition of slavery

  • Free-Soil Republicans focused on economic opportunities for Whites

• Remaining Democrats were also divided

  • Many supported the war but disagreed with Lincoln’s way of handling it

  • Others disagreed with the war and wanted to negotiate peace terms (Copperheads)

• With the suspension of habeas corpus, people were held without trial.

• At first, both sides depended on volunteers. As the war dragged on, maintaining troops depended on conscription (aka the draft). Some protested or rioted, while others could avoid service by finding a substitute or paying an exemption fee.

After General Benjamin Butler refused to return escaped slaves to their Confederate owners on the grounds that they were “contraband” and their labor would help the Confederacy, Congress passed two laws known as the Confiscation Acts:

• 1861: Gave the Union army the power to seize enemy property (including slaves)

• 1862: Freed all persons enslaved by any individual in rebellion against the US (following the Emancipation Proclamation)

When it was clear no political action would return the Confederacy to the Union, Lincoln decided to use his power to work towards abolishing slavery by citing it as a military necessity. After the battle of Antietam, Lincoln issued a final warning to the Confederacy - end the rebellion or lose your slaves. On January 1st, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves in territories outside Union control. Although few slaves were freed by this act, it officially recognized slavery as the cause of the war and empowered Union forces to continue as their work was now a moral mission. Furthermore, news of proclamation encouraged slaves to seek freedom by escaping to Union lines. 

The American Civil War was the most expensive war in American history, in terms of lives and money, calling for extraordinary efforts from the government to support the war effort. While a lack of men was solved through conscription and later, emancipation, lack of fund was solved through the sale of government bonds, the institution of the income tax, and issuing paper money not backed by gold (“greenbacks”), all of which contributed to inflation. To manage this, Congress created a national banking system (since Jackson vetoed the recharter of the Bank of the US). 

Manufacturing businesses were consolidated, but workers’ wages remained low despite rising costs. Many sought to profit off the war through the sale of cheaply-made military supplies, and fortunes made contributed to a new class of millionaires who would finance later industrialization.

With a wartime majority in Congress, Republicans worked to stimulate industrial and commercial growth in the US:

• Morrill Tariff Act (1861) - raised tariffs to increase revenue and protect American manufacturing; initiated a Republican program of high protective tariffs

• Homestead Act (1862) - promoted settlement of the Great Plains by offering parcels of land to anyone who agreed to farm that land for at least 5 years 

• Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) - encouraged states to use the sale of federal land grants to found and maintain agricultural and technological colleges that would help educate farmers, engineers, scientists, and researchers during the age of industrialization

• Pacific Railway Act (1862) - authorized the creation of a transcontinental railroad to connect CA with the eastern cities

Between the naval blockade and Sherman’s march of destruction, the South was suffering from lack of food, supplies, and faith in their ability to win. Grant continued to push Lee back, resulting in the fall of Richmond in April of 1865. The Confederacy tried to negotiate terms for peace that ensured their independence, but Lincoln wanted to restore the Union. When Lee tried to escape with his men to the mountains, Grant cut him off and forced him to surrender at Appomattox Court House, VA. 

On April 9, 1865, the Civil War was finally over. But restoring the Union would prove to be a long and difficult process.

The 1864 election came in the middle of the Civil War. Democrats nominated General George McClellan, who appealed to those tired of war by calling for peace (despite his military background). The Republicans, after some deliberation, nominated Lincoln again and rebranded themselves as the Unionist Party to attract those in favor of the war. Andrew Johnson was chosen as his running mate. As the tide of the war shifted in favor of the Union, the Lincoln-Johnson ticket won 212 electoral votes (to McClellan’s 21, though he did secure 45% of the popular vote). 

In his second inaugural address, Lincoln urged the people to treat those in the defeated south well, “with malice toward none; with charity for all”. He believed that hostility would hinder reconstruction. Just a few days after Lee’s surrender, Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth shot and killed president Lincoln while he was attending a play. This act angered many, and made it difficult to reunite the divided nation. 

Lee’s surrender may have meant the end of the war, but the problems that caused it were still alive and well. America couldn’t go back to the way things were after all that had happened. After the Civil War, the nation’s leaders were left with the following tasks:

• Rebuilding the south and reconciling a divided nation

• Continuing economic progress to keep pace as the world industrialized

• Solving the labor shortage (who will work the plantations now that slavery is abolished?)

• Establishing a place for the newly freed slaves in society

The era of Reconstruction was a period of profound social and political change in the United States, characterized by efforts to integrate newly freed African Americans into society and the contentious struggle over the future of the South. The initial purpose was to rebuild the South and reunite the divided nation, but it had a lasting impact on race relations, establishing a foundation on which the Civil Rights Movement would build on nearly a century later. 

• Freedmen’s Bureau - (Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands) created by Congress to support former slaves; welfare agency providing food, shelter, and medical aid to all Americans left destitute by the war

  • Education was biggest success, establishing schools and colleges for freed people

• The Reconstruction Act (1867) divided South into 5 military zones & laid down new guidelines for readmission: approve 14th Amendment & guarantee full suffrage for all male former slaves.

• 13th Amendment (1865) - slavery is unconstitutional 

• Civil Rights Act of 1866 → 14th Amendment (1868) - citizenship is defined as anyone born or naturalized in the US with equal protections under the law; protected blacks’(and other minorities) rights of citizenship  

  • Disqualified Confederate leaders from political office

  • Repudiated Confederate debts

  • Penalized a state for denying voting rights by taking away representation in Congress

• 15th Amendment (1870) - the right to vote could not be determined by race/ethnicity; allowed for black (and other minorities) male suffrage

• Civil Rights Act of 1875 - guaranteed equal accommodations in public places & prohibited courts from excluding African Americans from serving on juries 

During Reconstruction, Republicans controlled the governments of former Confederate states and were under military protection of the Army until Congress was satisfied all terms had been met. Monitoring Reconstruction progress in the southern states required help from a variety of sources, bringing many different people to an angry and wounded South:

• “Scalawags”: Southern Republicans or those from the South that did not support secession or the war

• “Carpetbaggers”: Northerners who moved South after the war, often interested in the economic development, humanitarian aid, or profiting from the misfortune of others

• With restrictions removed and opportunities offered, African Americans were able to hold office and participate in politics.

During the final stage of Reconstruction, Southern conservatives (“redeemers”) slowly took control of ex-Confederate state governments, pushing out Republicans and their civil rights agenda. Although these states were forced to accept abolition and African Americans as citizens, they did not believe freedmen and women deserve equal rights. These politicians actively worked to secure states’ rights, reduce spending and taxes, and maintain White supremacy. 

• Ku Klux Klan (KKK): Founded by Nathaniel Bedford Forrest in 1867, the KKK actively worked to suppress African-Americans from their constitutional rights through harassment, intimidation, and violence.

• To keep Whites superior, Southern state legislatures passed black codes - laws restricting the rights, movement, and activity of African Americans.

• Unprepared to lose their labor force, Southern landowners attempted to force their newly freed slaves into labor contracts. The Reconstruction led landowners to adopt a new system based on tenancy and sharecropping (a system in which landowners give land and supplies to workers in exchange for a portion of their crop yields). This system, similar to feudalism, kept laborers in debt to the landowners and unable to pay their way out of servitude. 

Unfortunately, most former slaves started their lives as free people with no formal education, money, or land, so their options were limited, especially in the devastated South, as food shortages left many in poor health and susceptible to diseases. However, emancipation allowed for families to be reunited while also giving them the chance to be educated, own businesses and property, establish neighborhoods and churches, and hold political office. This gift of independence and opportunity in a post-slavery world brought many African Americans to cities or the frontier, but some remained in the South as it was the only home they’d ever known. 

African Americans still faced resentment from ex-Confederates and widespread discrimination as many Americans supported abolition but not equality. Southern states found loopholes in Congressional amendments to keep African Americans from participating in any aspect of society, whether it be voting in an election or supporting a local business. This led to the development of black communities, where African Americans felt safe to live, work, and worship without White interference or prejudice.

The absence of men during the war left a vacuum filled by American women, who took on jobs in fields, factories, and clerical offices all while maintaining their household and raising their children. Some women even served as military nurses, volunteered for the war effort, and some even secretly took up arms to fight. When the men returned, women were expected to go back to life as it was. Their efforts during the war encouraged them to demand equal voting rights, especially as Congress extended suffrage to freedmen. While some territories expanded rights for women on the frontier (largely for practical reasons rather than a push for equality), women were not given the right to vote until the passing of the 19th amendment in 1919 (over 50 years later).

As time passed, civil rights became less of a priority for the leaders of the Republican Party. Politicians made use of patronage, giving jobs and government favors (spoils) to those that supported them. Many businessmen sought to use this to their advantage, with devious backdoor schemes and shady deals that helped them rake in profits.

• Jay Gould & James Fisk worked with Grant’s brother-in-law to corner the gold market (prevented by the Treasury, but not before they made their fortunes)

• Credit Mobilier - Insiders gave stock to influential members of Congress to keep them from looking too closely at their profits from the government subsidies used for the development of the transcontinental railroad. 

• Federal agents conspired with the liquor industry to defraud the government of millions in taxes.

• William Tweed, a Democratic Party leader in NY, organized dozens of schemes to steal millions from the state’s taxpayers, until he and his accomplices were exposed by The New York Times. 

By 1876, most of the Southern states had returned to the control of Democrats and federal troops had been removed. Looking for a fresh start, Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, while Democrats chose Samuel J. Tilden, the NY governor who had helped to take down corrupt “Boss Tweed”. Tilden won the popular vote, but the votes of three Southern states were contested. To win, he only need one electoral vote from one of the three states - LA, FL, & SC. 

After a special commission was created to determine who was entitled to those disputed votes, Republicans favored their party and gave all the votes to Hayes. Democrats were outraged and threatened to filibuster until the election results were sent to the House of Representatives, in which they held the majority. Leaders of both parties met to arrange an informal deal, referred to as the Compromise of 1877:

• Hayes would be elected president

• Once in office, Hayes would immediately end federal support of Republicans in the South and support the creation of a transcontinental railroad in the South → officially ending Reconstruction

Historians disagree over the success or failure of the Reconstruction. On the one hand, we see the beginnings of equality for African-Americans, but on the other, we see discrimination and prejudice through legal loopholes and the continued oppression of women and minorities. 

• Accomplishments:

  • Universal male suffrage

  • Property rights for women

  • Debt relief

  • Modern penal codes

  • Internal improvements (railroads, hospitals, homes for the disabled, etc.)

  • Expansion of education

• Failures:

  • Corruption & bribery

  • Wasteful spending

  • Did not encourage unity → lasting division, prejudice/discrimination

Despite technological advances, news of the Emancipation Proclamation and then the end of the Civil War took time to make it to the western territories. The last people to hear they were free lived in Texas, and the date they heard the news became a day of celebration which we now recognize as Juneteenth (June 19th).