William Seward served as Secretary of State for both Lincoln and Johnson, helping prevent European nations from supporting the Confederacy and then looking to expand the union once the war was over. He oversaw the purchase of Alaska, the annexation of Midway Island, and the claim of Nicaraguan territory for a future canal. To his dismay, he didn’t convince Congress to annex Hawaii or buy the Danish West Indies, but his work is what started American imperialism. 

The expansive landmass that is Alaska was once jointly claimed by Russia and Great Britain. Russia established a small colony for seal hunting, but fearing British takeover, offered the territory to the United States, who purchased it for $7.2 million in 1867. Many regarded this move as “Seward’s Folly”, seeing no promise for the frozen land, until gold was discovered.

Since the mid-1800s, many had settled in the Pacific islands, using them as trading outposts to break up the long voyage from North America to Asia. An American commission explored the Sandwich Islands and Grant sought to control Pearl Harbor. Soon Americans established trading deals with native Hawaiians, giving them exclusive access to Hawaiian sugar. American settlers aided in a coup to remove the Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani from power in 1893, and petitioned the US to annex the territory. President Cleveland, against imperialism, blocked attempts to acquire the island chain. 

The countries of Europe sought to expand their control into Asia and Africa, and the United States had no intention of being left behind. Industrialization had helped establish them as a world power, but they would only remain so if they had access to the same resources as their counterparts. While many supported expansionism, they hoped it would be accomplished by diplomacy rather than military action. Reasons for expansion include:

• Access to raw materials needed to supply various industries

• Competition & maintaining their place on the world stage

• Need for naval bases (Alfred Thayer Mahan)

• Economic opportunities to quell various periods of panic and depression

• Manifest Destiny & expansionism

• Social Darwinism & responsibility to spread Christianity (Josiah Strong)

• Influence of media (adventure stories, expanding circulation)

As discussed in Period 4, the Monroe Doctrine essentially stated the United States would prevent foreign powers, specifically those of Europe, from attempting to claim or reclaim territory in the Americas by any means necessary. Since that decree, the US has taken special interest in the affairs of the Americas and served as a protector of Latin America. 

• Pan-American Conference: meeting that led to the creation of an organization to promote cooperation on trade → now known as the Organization of American States

• Venezuela Boundary Dispute: The US acted as an intermediary between Great Britain and Venezuela as they discussed the boundary with the British territory of Guiana. The terms settled favored the British but also made the Venezuelan government feel supported by the US, improving foreign relations on both sides while upholding the Monroe Doctrine.

• Spanish-American War (1898)

Although Americans were largely divided over the issue of imperialism, jingoism (an intense form of nationalism calling for aggressive foreign policy) started to sway public opinion in the 1890s. While Cleveland and McKinley were against imperialism, especially by military means, this new fervor combined with economic interests urged them closer and closer to war. 

While the Spanish-American War only lasted a few months and took place largely at sea, the United States emerged victorious and were rewarded with Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines falling into their dominion. 

Causes:

• Cuban Revolt - Cuban nationalists had been fighting colonial rule off and on since 1868, unsuccessfully. Spain sent forces to crush the revolt in 1895, resulting in thousands of civilians being forced into camps and starved. 

• Yellow Press - Journalists promoted jingoist ideas through “yellow journalism” - sensational stories to stir up controversy. Americans took these reportings as fact and urged Congress to intervene. 

• De Lome Letter - A leaked letter in which the Spanish minister criticized President McKinley was taken as a great insult.

• Sinking of the Maine - The USS Maine exploded while docked in Havana, killing hundreds of Americans. The yellow press immediately blamed the Spanish.

• McKinley’s War Message - Following the sinking of the Maine, McKinley issued Spain an ultimatum to which they agreed. Despite this, the press and public kept pushing for war, and McKinley yielded to their demands and asked Congress to declare war. 

McKinley’s message to Congress outlined why the United States should support the Cuban rebels, and they passed a joint resolution authorizing war on April 20, 1898. Part of this resolution was the Teller Amendment, which explained that the United States had no intention of taking control of Cuba and would support the rebels in forming their own government.

As assistant secretary of the navy and an expansionist, Theodore Roosevelt strategically sent a fleet to the Philippines, who successfully fought off Spanish forces. The invasion of Cuba proved difficult, especially because of the tropical diseases that killed thousands of American soldiers. Despite these setback, Cuban and American forces were able to defeat the Spanish. Crushed on both land and sea, Spain sought peace terms in August, bringing the war to end in only four months. Roosevelt’s leadership and famed charge up San Juan Hill made him a national hero. 

The terms of peace that ended the Spanish-American War proved more controversial than the war itself. The treaty included the following:

• Recognition of Cuban independence

• US acquisition of Puerto Rico & Guam

• US control of the Philippines in exchange for $20 million

This brought back the debate over imperialism, as expansionists wanted to annex the island nation but anti-imperialists believed this to be a violation of American principles. Despite the opposition, the Treaty of Paris came to a vote and was ratified in February 1899. Filipino nationalists were outraged and fought against US control for three years.

Effects:

• Insular Cases: Americans on both sides of the imperialism debate found themselves questioning the rights of the Philippine people - are the subject to the rights of American citizens as the US has control of their territory? Imperialists disagreed, and the Supreme Court ruled in their favor in a series of court cases. Thus the rights of American citizens do not extend to those living in American territories. 

• Despite the promise to allow Cuba its independence, US troops remained on the island until 1901, in response to the Platt Amendment - an army appropriations bill that prevented Cuba from signing a treaty with a foreign power that impaired their independence, required that the US be allowed to intervene on their behalf, and allow the US to maintain naval bases in Cuba. 

• Reelection of William McKinley, with Theodore Roosevelt as VP

• Recognition as a world power with a powerful navy and international prestige

Having failed to industrialize and modernize, China had fallen prey to foreign powers. Russia, Japan, Great Britain, France, and Germany had all established spheres of influence within China, giving them exclusive control of trade in the region. In response, secretary of state John Hay sent diplomatic notes to all nations controlling spheres of influence (a geographical area or region where a particular country holds significant political, economic, military, or cultural dominance), asking them to accept an Open Door Policy, giving all nations equal trading rights in China. While no one rejected the policy, they didn’t confirm it either. Regardless of their response, Hay decreed that all accepted this policy. 

With increasing foreign presence, nationalism and xenophobia (hatred for foreigners) spread through China. In 1900, a secret society of Chinese nationalists - the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (aka the Boxers) - attacked foreign settlements and murdered missionaries. American troops worked to crush the rebellion and forced China to pay for their actions. 

Following the rebellion, Hay sent another round of notes to the various powers to reaffirm American commitment to China’s territorial integrity and policy of “equal and impartial trade”. While it was unsuccessful, it established the foundation for future relations between the US and China. 

During the Gilded Age, many Americans started to advocate for a larger role of government, an expansion of democracy, and regulations of business to protect workers and consumers. While they had minor victories, they fell short of major change, which is where the Progressives come in. Their work is based on the following:

• The power and influence of big business (as seen with the election of McKinley)

• The increasing gap between the rich and poor

• The dominance of corrupt political machine (as seen with “Boss Tweed”)

• The uncertainties of business cycles

• The violent conflict between labor and capital

• Discrimination faced by minorities and a growing push to extend equality

United in Progressive reform were a diverse group of Americans, including African Americans, union leaders, feminists, and Protestant church leaders. Though some had singular goals and others advocated for widespread change, they all shared the following beliefs:

• Society should limit the power of big business, improve democracy, and strengthen social justice.

• Government at all levels are responsible for ensuring citizens are treated fairly and equally, making changes to address the issues listed above.

• Moderate reforms would be more effective than radical ones.

Urban Middle & Professional Class

• • Doctors, lawyers, ministers, storekeepers, bankers, managers, and other white-collar workers were growing in numbers, possessing enough wealth and power to create change but not being so wealthy as to ignore the problems faced by the working class.

  • Many professional associations were established and worked to address corrupt practices of the government and big business.

Protestants

• • Protestant churches preached against avarice and claimed caring for the poor and unfortunate is one’s Christian duty. Many Protestants were native-born Americans from “Old Money” that despised how these industrialists had replaced them as the elites in society.

Pragmatists

• • Pragmatism is an approach that assesses the truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application. Laissez-faire is impractical; logic and truth should be the foundation for democracy.

  • Efficiency could be gained through scientific management and reorganization.

Much to the dismay of the tycoons, their president William McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist only a few months into his second term. His vice-president was none other than the expansionist, trust-busting, hero of the Spanish-American War - Theodore Roosevelt. Upon his inauguration, he pledged to “speak softly and carry a big stick”. This “Big Stick Diplomacy”, as it was labeled in the press, pushed Roosevelt to build up the United States as a world power. His time as president is marked by his work to regulate big business, break up monopolies, conserve natural resources, protect citizens and consumers through progressive reforms, expand the powers of the office of president, and promote interests of the United States.

Unlike his predecessors, when economic crisis hit during the presidency of Roosevelt, he did not take the side of the business owners, but he also didn’t take the side of the workers. Instead he proposed a “square deal” for both.

When a coal mining strike threatened to cause problems during the winter months, he summoned union leaders and mine owners to the White House to discussion a path forward. The owners had no intention of coming to a compromise until Roosevelt threatened to have federal troops take control of the mines, at which point they agreed to a 10% wage increase and a 9-hour workday, but they didn’t have to recognize the union and workers would return to their posts. This move helped him secure reelection in 1904. 

Many Latin American countries had failed to repay their debts to European powers, bringing warships coming to collect and violate the Monroe Doctrine. Roosevelt responded that the US intervene instead, forcing the countries to pay their debts through occupation on behalf of the powers of Europe until they were satisfied. This decree was known as the Roosevelt Corollary, shifting the role of the United States from protector to enforcer in the western hemisphere. It was used to justify American presence in South America and had a negative impact on US relations with those countries. 

Roosevelt also upheld the Sherman Antitrust Act, bringing the Supreme Court to overturn its previous position and forcing monopolies to be broken up. The first target was the North Securities Company, a railroad monopoly. The next was Standard Oil, bringing oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller to court and disassembling his monopoly. Other companies were brought down through Roosevelt’s commitment to trust-busting, as he eliminated “bad trusts” that hurt the public and regulated “good trusts” that worked efficiently and kept prices low. He also strengthened regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission to make fares reasonable.   

Another move that gain Roosevelt popularity was his dedication to preserving the environment. During his time as president, he oversaw the passage of a series of laws meant to preserve and protect the nation’s natural resources, giving us our national park system. 

Other Accomplishments of Teddy:

• Russo-Japanese War: Imperialist rivalry led to war between Russia and Japan, so Roosevelt arranged a diplomatic conference in New Hampshire, where both sides agreed to the Treaty of Portsmouth. 

• “Gentleman’s Agreement”: In exchange for a reduction in immigration to the US, Roosevelt was asked to persuade California to repeal discriminatory laws against Japanese-Americans, specifically those segregating schools. 

• Great White Fleet: To show off US naval superiority, Roosevelt sent a fleet of battleships on a global cruise.

• Root-Takahira Agreement: A pledge for Japan and the United States to recognize each other’s Pacific territories and maintain the Open Door Policy.

• President of Peace: Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for orchestrating the end of the Russo-Japanese War. He also arranged the Algeciras Conference, where France and Germany settled their dispute over the territory of Morocco. Finally, he directed the participation of US in the International Peace Conference in 1907. 

• Panama Canal: Following the Spanish-American War, the need for a canal to ease the journey from the Atlantic to Pacific became paramount, but there were a number of obstacles:

  • The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, a joint agreement between the US and Britain preventing the building of a canal was signed in 1850, would need to be canceled. A new agreement, Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, was signed, giving the US the ability to build a canal.

  • Columbia controlled the territory of Panama, which was the ideal location for a canal. Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama’s independence which was successful. The new government then had to sign an agreement giving the US rights to build a canal on their land - the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903.  

  • Canal-building is difficult, dangerous, and expensive. It took ten years to complete and many Americans opposed the efforts used to make it happen. Latin Americans were also unhappy. Congress later voted to pay Columbia back for the lost territory in 1921 and the Canal Zone was returned to Panama in 1999. 

Roosevelt’s successor was William Howard Taft, whose policies were referred to as “dollar diplomacy”, as he favored expanding US trade and enterprise rather than their borders. 

• As more people favored anti-imperialist policies, Taft worked to promote American business and stabilize their interests abroad through private financial investment.

• Taft worked to promote joint investment in the development of railroads in China. 

• Taft sent marines to settle financial affairs and a civil war in Nicaragua in 1911. 

Roosevelt adhered to tradition, championing his secretary of war William Howard Taft to take after his two terms. Republicans readily endorsed Taft, and he defeated William Jennings Bryan in the election of 1908. 

Like Roosevelt, Taft continued to break up trusts. He worked to give the ICC power to regulate or suspend railroad rates and oversee telephone/telegraph lines. He oversaw the passing of the 16th amendment (ratified in 1913) which authorized the government to collect income tax. Taft also expanded national forest preserves while also setting aside federal oil lands. 

When Taft fired Gifford Pinchot (first director of the forest service and friend of Roosevelt) for criticizing one of his cabinet members, Republicans felt he had betrayed them. Despite claiming he’d lower tariffs, he supported the conservative measure to raise them. This caused a split in the Republican Party. 

In the election of 1912, Woodrow Wilson won through his campaign for a New Freedom - a moral approach to foreign affairs that opposed imperialism and the actions of his Republican predecessors. 

• Jones Act (1916) - granted full territorial status to the Philippines, guaranteeing a bill of rights and universal male suffrage to its citizens, and promised independence once a stable government was established.

• Granted US citizenship to all Puerto Ricans and limited self-government through an act of Congress in 1917.

• Persuaded Congress to repeal the act that exempted American ships from paying tolls on the Panama Canal.

• Through his secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, he arranged 30 conciliation treaties to settle disputes and minimize military action. 

Wilson was the first southerner to occupy the White House since 1850 and the second Democrat since the Civil War. Like Roosevelt, he wanted to be actively involved in shaping policy and support the ideas of the public when deciding on reform. He pledged to bring back “free and fair competition” while attacking tariffs, banks, and trusts.

• Lowered tariffs

• Graduated income tax

• National banking system → Federal Reserve

• Established the Federal Trade Commission to investigate and take action against unfair or dangerous practices

• Encouraged the end of monopolies → Clayton Antitrust Act

• Federal Farm Loan Act → provided low interest loans to farmers

• Child Labor Act → although later found unconstitutional, it prohibited shipment of products made by workers under 14 years of age

Despite his anti-imperialist policies, Wilson was not shy about using military might to stabilize South America, especially to maintain control of the Panama Canal.

• Called for an arms embargo against Mexico

• Sent the navy to occupy Veracruz, almost leading to war

• Sent expeditionary forces into Mexico to pursue a rebel leader who murdered Americans

One of the most infamous muckraker works was The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. In this book, Sinclair described the horrific conditions of the meat packing industry, including unwashed hands, lack of refrigeration, and cost-cutting measures that threatened public health. Public outcry convinced Congress to intervene.

• Pure Food & Drug Act - prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled food/drugs

• Meat Inspection Act - required federal inspectors to visit meatpacking plants to ensure they meet the minimum standards for cleanliness and safety

This set in motion the creation of other organizations dedicated to protecting consumers and employees, such as the FDA & OSHA. 

As discussed in the previous period, W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington had differing approaches to their quest for racial equality. Washington advocated that equality could be earned through education and economic independence, while DuBois demanded an immediate end to injustice and segregation. Groups formed based on these two opposing philosophies. 

• DuBois met with Black intellectuals in Niagara Falls (on the Canada side, since they didn’t segregate public spaces) and those who joined became members of the Niagara Movement. 

• Members of the Niagara Movement united with White progressives to form the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). The organization was committed to the end of segregation in all forms and expand educational opportunities for African-Americans. 

• Formed in 1911, the National Urban League helped southerners adjust to life in the northern cities while emphasizing self-reliance and economic advancement. 

Although women had gained some rights and protections, tragedy was what brought greatest change. The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City employed hundreds of women of various ages. Unfortunately, in a time before OSHA, the smallest misstep could spell disaster. What started as a small flame grew into an inferno that destroyed the building and claimed 146 lives. This is considered the catalyst for change, not only for women’s rights but also basic safety measures and improved working conditions. 

Suffragettes and advocates for getting women the right to vote had existed for decades, but little progress had been made, largely because a national amendment required the support of those currently in office. Carrie Chapman, president of NAWSA, sought suffrage at state levels and spun the cause to call upon existing gender stereotypes, claiming women could better serve their families if empowered by the right to vote. Others took a more aggressive route. Alice Paul, founder of the National Women’s Party, organized pickets, marches, hunger strikes, and parades to convince the public of women’s right to vote.

Although these efforts helped at the state level-, women’s role in WWI is what won them the right to vote through the passage of the 19th Amendment (ratified in 1920). Chapman organized the League of Women Voters to keep American women informed about candidates and issues. Additionally, women championed change in other arenas, expanding divorce laws, educational opportunities, property rights, and equality in the workplace. Margaret Sanger advocated for birth control practices, the ideas for which eventually formed Planned Parenthood. 

• Secret Ballot: The use of voting booths so citizens could vote privately, without fear of intimidation from publicly submitting their ballot.

• Direct Primary: Allowing voters to cast votes for nominations rather than relying on party bosses, giving citizens a greater say in government.

• 17th Amendment (1913): Required all U.S. senators to be elected by popular vote

• Initiative: gave voters the ability to propose bills for consideration

• Referendum: allowed voters to vote on proposed legislation on their ballots

• Recall: enabled voters to remove corrupt or unsatisfactory politicians by majority vote prior to the end of their term 

Education

• Free kindergarten

• Night schools

• Public Playgrounds

Public Utilities

• Transferring ownership of water systems to city governments, soon followed by gas lines, electric power, and urban transportation

City Management

• Voters elect heads of city departments

• Experts hired to make governments run efficiently and effectively

Although hindsight is 20/20, almost anyone can look back at history and realize World War I (and II) were bound to happen. In the early 1900s, Europe was a powder keg waiting to explode. Nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and a tangled alliance system meant any aggression on the part of one nation (in this case, assassination of Austrian Archduke Ferdinand) doomed them all.

The United States sought to maintain their policy of isolationism through neutrality, but that later transformed into doing anything possible to prevent direct involvement with the war. 

• Naval blockades prevented US ships (merchant, military, or otherwise) from being able to effectively sail in and out of European ports

• Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare

• Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915) and other American ships

• Economic links to Britain & France

  • The need for war supplies helped the industrious American nation crawl out of a period of recession by supplying arms to the Allied Powers. While they could have also supplied the Central Powers, British blockades prevented this from happening and the US was becoming prosperous without it. 

  • When money for arms ran low, the US government allowed American bankers to supply the Allies with loans. 

• Public opinion

• Preparing in the event of being brought into war → National Defense Act (NDA) to expand the military

President Wilson, like much of America, had no interest in going to war. The nation was still fragile economically, and the war was all the way in Europe. Other than some trading inconveniences, the US was unaffected. As the war drug on, however, the US was forced to recognize that they would be pulled into the war one way or another. In a measure of preparedness, the National Defense Act expanded to military. This move was widely opposed and caused controversy, believing it was proof the government was getting ready to go to war. Among those against going to war were Populists, Progressives, Socialists, and suffragettes, who wanted the government to focus on issues closer to home.

Wilson’s first victory was due to the fracture of the Republican Party. Since Roosevelt declined the Progressive Party’s nomination and rejoined the Republicans (who nominated Charles Evans Hughes), he couldn’t depend on that for reelection. 

Democrats campaigned Wilson as the anti-war president, saying “He kept us out of war”. Although it was a close race, Americans desire to stay out of war and Wilson’s Progressive policies helped him retain the office of president. Only a month after his second inauguration, however, Wilson went to Congress seeking a declaration of war. 

Wilson had always been on a path of peace, even while sending troops to fight. He presenting a series of goals for US involvement in the war and bringing it to end ultimate end in a plan known as the “Fourteen Points”. 

• Open diplomacy without secret treaties

• Economic free trade on the seas during war and peace

• Equal trade conditions

• Decrease armaments among all nations

• Adjust colonial claims

• Evacuation of all Central Powers from Russia and allow it to define its own independence

• Belgium to be evacuated and restored

• Return of Alsace-Lorraine region and all French territories

• Readjust Italian borders

• Austria-Hungary to be provided an opportunity for self-determination

• Redraw the borders of the Balkan region creating Romania, Serbia and Montenegro

• Creation of a Turkish state with guaranteed free trade in the Dardanelles

• Creation of an independent Polish state

• Creation of the League of Nations

Despite initial opposition to war, public opinion started to shift due to the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare on the part of Germany and the release of the Zimmerman telegram - a leaked message sent by Germany to Mexico offering the return of lost American territories in exchange for help in the war effort. 

Another catalyst was the Russian Revolution. As defenders of democracy, the United States was against the inclusion of Russia in the Allied Powers, as it was an autocracy. Involvement in the war was the final straw for the citizens of Russia, who overthrew the czar and proclaimed a republic. 

Congress agreed to Wilson’s proposal that they should enter the war on the side of the Allies so the world would “be made safe for democracy” in April of 1917. Mobilization of troops took time, so the first forces didn’t arrive until the end of the year. The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) originally came to provide support for French and British forces, but soon had their own section of the Western Front. 

Fresh troops and naval support from the United States helped the Allies push back the Germans, who agreed to an armistice on November 11, 1918. 

As many noted prior to the US entering WWI, the nation was not prepared for a major conflict. With mounting tensions, leaders recognized the need to make changes in the event war could no longer be avoided. 

• War Industries Board centralized control over raw materials and prices.

• Food Administration encouraged rationing meat and bread or growing your own vegetables so more food could be sent to the troops.

• Fuel Administration oversaw the production of coal, closing nonessential factories and instituting daylight savings. 

• Railroad Administration coordinated traffic and standardized equipment as it took public control of the railroads.

• National War Labor Board helped arbitrate disputes between workers and their employees, increasing wages and shortening hours.

• To finance the war, Wilson’s government raised $33 billion through loans, taxes, and liberty bonds - having Americans invest in the government for a later payout. Income and corporate taxes were increased, and a new tax was placed on luxury items. 

Not everyone supported WWI, but once the US officially entered, the government knew it needed to ensure the public’s cooperation in the war effort. To accomplish this, they used either intimidation or persuasion through propaganda to make certain policies and changes seem like an act of patriotism. Controlling this was the Committee on Public Information, using journalists, artists, and famous actors to create films, posters, and other media demonstrating the heroism of Allied troops and the villainy of the Central Powers. 

Wartime concerns justified government actions to secure supplies and ensure the safety of a country involved in conflict:

• Immigration Act of 1917: preventing entrance to the US of immigrants from the Middle East to southeast Asia 

• Espionage Act (1917): imprisonment up to 20 years for anyone who incited rebellion among the armed forces and or obstructed the draft

• Sedition Act (1918): made speaking out against the government a criminal offense

• Schenck v. United States (1919): When a man was imprisoned for passing out pamphlets against the draft, the Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act.

• Selective Service Act: Thousands of young men voluntarily enlisted for service, but in the event of a long war, they’d need more. Therefore the Secretary of War devised a “selective service” system to conscript men for the military (draft). All men between 21 to 30 had to register for service, 2.8 million of which were called by lottery to serve (including African Americans, though they served in segregated units). 

• More jobs and opportunities for women and Mexicans

• The Great Migration: Between 1910 and 1930, about a million African Americans left the south for northern cities. Reasons for migration included limited economic opportunities, destruction of cotton crops, and rising racial tensions. This brought more diversity to the north but was not an escape from discrimination.

  • The Great Migration increased the African-American population in the north and many resented the additional competition for jobs to the point of violence in the form of race riots, lynchings, and widespread acts of aggression against black-owned businesses and properties. A resurgence of White supremacy led to the commemorations of Confederate icons through statues and other memorials. 

• Pandemic of 1918 - Flu outbreak killing over half a million Americans

• Demobilization following the war meant many returning soldiers didn’t get their old jobs back or those that did took them from women and African Americans. Additionally, wartime efforts bolstered the American economy, but with the war over and European factories back in operation, a recession followed, with 10% of Americans being unemployed. 

• Red Scare: Communist fears had already existed, but they were exacerbated by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia. The anti-German hysteria of the war transformed into anti-Communist hysteria in the post-war period. This also fueled xenophobia, placing more restrictions on immigration and promoting racial stereotypes. 

The ultimate goal of the Fourteen Point Plan was to establish terms for lasting peace by preventing another world war and promote democracy in the new world. Following the armistice, a peace conference was held at the Palace of Versailles outside of Paris to allow the heads of the Allied Powers to draft a treaty officially ending the war. The major players (known as the “Big Four”) included President Wilson, David Lloyd George (UK), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy). The negotiations were centered around Wilson’s plan, though many points were compromised on to finalize the Treaty of Versailles. 

• Germany was disarmed & stripped of territory as punishment and a deterrent for future wars (laughing in irony)

• Principle of self-determination: policy of allowing newly created or freed territories to establish their own style of government

• Creation of the League of Nations

The Constitution did not give Wilson the power or authority to agree to the terms in the Treaty of Versailles, even though his plan was a large part of it. Only Congress could ratify the treaty, and they were hesitant to do so. Many saw US membership in the League of Nations was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine.

Senate disapproval of the Treaty divided into two groups:

• Irreconcilables: refused to consent to the US joining in the League of Nations

• Reservationists: would accept the the Treaty if reservationists were added(led by Republican Senate Majority Leader Henry Cabot Lodge)

Wilson attempted to sway public opinion to convince Congress to accept all terms, but his strenuous speaking tour caused him to collapse and suffer a massive stroke. Without his influence, the Senate defeated the Treaty, refusing to sign it or join the League of Nations. 

Stabilizing the economy in a post-war world is always a challenge, but improvement in output and manufacturing was made possible thanks to improved standards of living, increased productivity (assembly line model), and increased use of electricity and oil instead of coal. 

Government at all levels still supported big business by offering corporate tax cuts and doing little to enforce antitrust laws. The Federal Reserve provided low interest rates and relaxed regulation of banks. Unfortunately, they also tightened the money supply.

As America embraced electricity, a market opened up - consumer appliances. Refrigerators, vacuums, and washing machines made their way into homes across the nation, bringing both convenience and additional leisure time. Business appealed to potential customers through another expanding industry - advertisement. 

Henry Ford’s assembly line model allowed for average citizens the opportunity to buy automobiles at affordable prices or even through options like monthly payments or on credit. Suburbs and chain stores boomed as more people could commute to work and afford modern conveniences.  

Affordable cars changed society, as 26.5 million Americans owned a car by 1929. Automobiles made travel by railroad obsolete, while sustaining other industries, like steel, glass, rubber, gasoline, and construction. Additionally, cars became part of the American lifestyle. It wasn’t just a way to get around, it was a status symbol, a way to explore your city or impress a date. Automobiles’ popularity created new industries, like drive-thru restaurants and drive-in movie theaters, but also caused problems. Pollution, traffic james, accidents, injuries, and even deaths were also an effect of the car boom. Some even claimed the independence of driving led to a breakdown in morals, corrupting America’s youth. 

While WWI had kept prices high and farmers profitable, their prosperity ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Many farmers picked the wrong time to expand and had immense debts. Some new technologies helped farmers increase production, but this also meant prices remained low. 

The 1920s are often referred to as the “roarin’ twenties” because it was an era of prosperity and change, as traditional ideas and values were challenged by a generation who had been disenchanted by the perils of war. The more people tried to rein them in, the more they pushed back. One aspect of traditional life being changed was religion. 

• Modernism: Redefining Christian values to reflect changing times by taking a historical and critical view of the Bible

• Fundamentalism: Rejecting these changes, Christians in rural America took the Bible literally and blamed modern interpretations for all of society’s ills. 

• Revivalism: Fundamentalist preachers using modern technology to spread their message

Among the major events of the time was the infamous Scopes “Monkey” Trial. More people were started to agree with Darwin’s theory of evolution, believing that his ideas could coexist with Biblical teachings and did not represent an abandonment of faith. Tennessee, forever progressive, outlawed teaching evolution and the ACLU saw an opportunity to challenge the constitutionality of this. They asked a biology teacher, John Scopes, to teach evolution, for which he was arrested in 1925. The whole nation listened in as Clarence Darrow defended Scopes against self-proclaimed Bible expert William Jennings Bryan. Although Scopes was convicted, it had Americans questioning the place of religious beliefs in schools. 

Wartime concerns over grain stores and maintaining a sober workforce enabled temperance activists to see alcohol banned through the passing of the 18th amendment in 1919. The Volstead Act was added to allow federal enforcement of prohibition.

Despite these measures, Americans had no intention of giving up booze. Speakeasies (clubs where liquor was sold illegally) popped up in cities across the nation, while those in charge of preventing alcohol consumption were paid bribes to feign ignorance. Bootleggers manufactured moonshine in bathtubs and garages, while gangsters profited from the business of distributing alcoholic beverages illegally. Organized crime became big business, leading to other illegal activities like prostitution, gambling, and drug use. 

The increase in criminal activity (and missed opportunity for taxation) pushed politicians to repeal the 18th amendment by passing and ratifying the 21st amendment in 1933. 

The post-war economic troubles in Europe and other parts of the world brought over a million immigrants to the United States between 1919 and 1921. With this flood of immigrants, nativist resentment over job competition, Protestant concerns over increasing numbers of Catholics and Jews, and politicians fears over potential anarchists or communists starting revolution convinced Congress to pass quota laws limiting immigration.

• Emergency Quota Act of 1921 - 3% of nation’s population

• Immigration Act of 1924 - decreased to 2% based on the Census of 1890

Although quotas applied to immigrants from all countries in theory, Japanese immigrants were barred while Canadians and Latin Americans were exempt from quota restrictions. 

Racial tensions culminated with the Trial of Sacco & Vanzetti. In 1927, two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were found guilty and executed for murder despite little evidence against them because they were known anarchists and the eyewitness said the robbers “looked Italian”. 

The Ku Klux Klan had been around since the Reconstruction, but increased membership in the 1920s through advertisement and portraying themselves are heroes. While they were still targeting African-Americans, nativist beliefs of the time urged them to add Catholics, Jews, foreigners, and suspected Communists to their list of “enemies”. Dressing in white robes, they’d attack their victims with whips and fire, orchestrating lynches and other acts of violence against those they have deemed inferior. Fraud and corruption led to the KKK’s decline, expedited by one leader being convicted of murder. Unfortunately, a variety of white supremacist groups continue to congregate and remain active to this day. 

Disillusioned with traditional American values having grow up during a period of war, a new generation of writers, musicians, and artists used their respective mediums to explain the essence of humanity and to comment on the issues average citizens were faced with each day. This group is known as the “lost generation” and includes Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, T. S. Eliot, Sinclair Lewis, Ezra Pound, Eugene O’Neill, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, and Edward Hopper. 

Themes included:

• Scorn for religion

• Abhorring war

• Loneliness/Isolation

• Materialism

• Disapproval of prejudice/racism

Women had secured the right to vote, but little else had changed. Unless your family had no other alternative, women were expected to stay home to raise children and tend to the home. While this domestic existence was made easier by new technology, it didn’t stop some women from lamenting such a life. Women that were employed were often young, living in the city, and working as clerks, nurses, teachers, and maids, all while receiving less pay than their male counterparts. 

As previously mentioned, the culture of the 1920s challenges many traditional ideas, one of which being the idea of premarital sex. Sigmund Freud’s research connecting sexual repression with mental illness, as well as, the shifted focus of pop culture, encouraged promiscuity (even though most states prohibited the use of contraceptive birth control). Fashion also modernized the woman of the 1920s. Gone were the billowing shirts with high collars and layers of fabric, and in their place were short, tight dresses in bright colors. Women embraced the jazz age, smoking cigarettes and drinking illegal alcohol in speakeasies and dancing with men without chaperones, sporting short hair, make-up, and high heels - these women were called “flappers”. 

With women now part of the voting population, lawmakers had to listen to their demands. Divorce rates skyrocketed as women forced requirements for ending marriage to be lessened. Women graduated high school and entered the workforce or even went on to college. 

By 1930, 20% of the African-American population lived in the North, and that steadily increased due to the Great Migration. The largest community of African-Americans developed in Harlem, a section of New York City, and was home to a variety of famous poets, artists, writers, and musicians. Their achievements and popularity is why the period was coined as the “Harlem Renaissance”.

Another term for the time was the “jazz age”. Made popular by talented musicians like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, jazz brought together Americans of all races, though many venues where they performed were segregated. 

The continued presence of segregation and discrimination led some African-Americans to believe in black separatism. Leaders like Marcus Garvey advocated the back-to-Africa movement. After being convicted of fraud and deported, Garvey’s movement collapsed, but other leaders encouraged his ideas of nationalism and black pride while disapproving of returning to Africa. 

Architecture

• Art deco & streamlined styles were embraced as architects became more like artists than builders

  • Chrysler Building

  • Empire State Building

Mass Media

• First commercial radio station went on the air in 1920

• By 1930, ⅓ of all US homes had a radio bringing them news and entertainment straight into their living room.

Movie Industry

• As Hollywood mass produced films, going to the movies became an American pastime.

Music

• Jazz blended several genres of music together and was made popular by rebellious teens

• Phonographs gave people the opportunity to listen to music at their leisure

Aviation

• WWI demonstrated the importance of aviation, so new airplanes were designed and put to the test while pilots tried to beat records over land and sea. 

  • Charles Lindbergh & the non-stop transatlantic flight

“Heroes”

• Instead of revering presidents and politicians, Americans were inspired by and enamored with famous athletes and movie stars. 

Capitalist nations are subject to alternating economic highs and lows, but the period of depression seen in the 1930s was worse than any that came before.

The events leading to the Great Depression:

• Rising stock prices increasing investments

• A massive selling off of stocks → Black Thursday

• Some investors attempted to buy back the stock to stabilize prices, but then the selling frenzy resumed, scaring the public → Black Tuesday

• Dow Jones index feel from a September high of 381 to 190; within 3 years, it would drop to 41

Although the stock market of 1929 triggered the Great Depression, a variety of factors exacerbated the economic slump, making it longer and worse.

• Uneven distribution of income: Wartime economy provided jobs, but with the war over, many positions were no longer necessary. 

• Stock market speculation: people trying to play the market and make a quick profit by buying stocks through loans that would be repaid when the purchased stock increased in value

• Excessive use of credit: consumer economy depended on buying on credit, with monthly payments for goods

• Overproduction of consumer goods: factories continued to pump out goods despite wages and demand decreasing

• Weak farm economy: severe weather and droughts coupled with overproduction, debt, and low prices caused farmers to struggle

• Government policies disrupting international trade

  • High tariffs meant to protect American business

  • Bank failures since the Federal Reserve had tightened the money supply

• Primary markets for goods were disrupted by war 

Like many of the time, Hoover believed the stock market crash and the depression that followed was a temporary problem, and the market would eventually right itself. Unfortunately, he was wrong, and made poor decisions that made the Great Depression worse.

• Hawley-Smoot Tariff: highest ever tax on imported goods → European nations retaliated with their own tariffs on American goods

• Debt Moratorium: recognizing that the world was suffering economically, Hoover called for a halt on repayments on war loans → people withdrew their savings causing banks to fail

• Attempts to intervene:

  • Farm Board → held surplus goods in storage and worked to stabilize prices

  • Reconstruction Finance Corporation → government support for railroads, banks, insurance agencies, and other financial institutions believing relief would “trickle-down” to stimulate economic recovery 

By 1932, the unemployed grew desperate. Farmers banded together to prevent farms from being foreclosed. Some even resorted to violence. In the summer that year, WWI veterans marched on D.C., demanding immediate payment for the bonus promised to them in 1945. They were joined by other veterans and their families. When two veterans die in a clash with police, Hoover sent in General Douglas MacArthur to drive them out of Washington, which he does through use of tanks and tear gas. This action shocked the public, who found the action’s of the president to be heartless.

Disenchanted with Hoover and desperate for relief from the Great Depression, Americans supported the Democratic candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt, winning him the election of 1932. Hoover still had four-months in office but chose to do nothing (a “lame duck” president) during that time, which encouraged Congress to pass the 20th amendment, changing the date of inauguration from March to January. 

FDR had given people hope that the depression would soon end, so he had to make good on his promises to do so. His cousin, Theodore Roosevelt, was the inspiration for his political goals, working his way through the ranks despite being disabled by polio. His commitment to helping the poor, warm personality, and speeches of strength and hope inspired Americans amidst economic disaster.

FDR’s wife, Eleanor, was as hard-working and admired as her husband, becoming one of the most active first lady to date. She wrote newspapers, gave speeches, and traveled the country to interact with citizens and see what could be done to improve their lives. She was a close advisor of the president, influencing him to do more for minorities and the less fortunate. 

When accepting the nomination for the Democratic party, FDR promised “a new deal for the American people”. Once in office, his New Deal programs focused on “the 3 R’s”:

• Relief for the people out of work

• Recovery for business and the economy as a whole

• Reform American economic institutions

To make change possible, FDR called upon those that advised him in his previous positions, as well as, a group of university professors known as the “Brain Trust”. He also made his cabinet the most diverse in US history (at that time), employing people of various faiths, ethnicities, and backgrounds. He even appointed Frances Perkins as Secretary of Labor, the first woman to serve in a president’s cabinet. 

After swearing in, FDR called a 100-day special session of Congress, during which time Congress passed into law every request the president made. Most of the new laws allowed for the creation of agencies targeting the depression. 

• Bank Holiday - On March 6th, the president closed banks to allow them time to reorganize and stabilize with the government’s help in an effort to restore faith in banks when they reopened on March 13th. 

• The end of Prohibition was another campaign promise. The Beer-Wine Revenue Act was passed to legalize the sale of beer and wine as a means of increasing revenue. It was followed by the 21st amendment, which repealed the 18th amendment and officially ended Prohibition. 

• Starting in March of 1933, FDR updated the American public on the affairs of the country over the radio. These “fireside chats” were first used to restore faith in banks, but were continued to gain support for other New Deal initiatives. 

FDR’s first 2 years in office were focused on relief, but with Democratic victories during Congressional elections, he had the majority needed to pass other measures for recovery and reform. Changes made during this time are referred to as part of the Second New Deal.

When it came time for another election, the economy was improving but still had a long way to go. However, the fact that FDR had taken an active role in providing relief for the millions of Americans struggling during the Depression, he had become quite popular. By association, so did the Democratic Party.  New Deal policies attracted support from diverse groups, including those who had been a large part of Republican Party membership - urban workers, farmers, African Americans, labor unions, and ethnic minorities such as Catholics and Jews. 

Things had started to turn around, but then Americans were hit with a recession the winter of 1937, largely due to the implementation of social security and reducing government spending. Hoping to find a solution, FDR turned to the writings of John Maynard Keynes, a British economist. Keynes was a proponent of demand-side economics, which emphasized the importance of government intervention to stimulate demand and promote economic growth. 

• Increase government spending

• Increase money supply

• Lower interest rates

• More government intervention to stabilize production and prices

• Work to achieve full employment

• Embracing Keynes ideas proved successful, but the Depression wasn’t over yet. 

Despite the success of many of the programs in providing relief and recovery, many opposed the New Deal:

• Socialists and liberals considered the New Deal to be doing too much to help businesses, believing it to be an attempt to “save capitalism” (meanwhile business owners felt like they were under attack as the government supported unions and increased regulations)

• Some also claimed the programs didn’t do enough for ethnic minorities, women, and the elderly

• Republicans argued the New Deal gave the government too much power, and the programs were borderline socialism/communism

The term "demagogue" refers to a political leader who seeks support by appealing to the emotions, prejudices, and fears of the population rather than by appealing to rational arguments or policies. Demagogues often use populist rhetoric, scapegoating, and inflammatory language to gain power and maintain control.

• Father Charles E. Coughlin - used radio to encourage the end of “evil conspiracies” by inflating currency and nationalizing all banks → arguments grew increasingly fascist (and racist)

• Dr. Francis E. Townsend - proposed a plan for the elderly that served as inspiration for Social Security

• Huey Long - proposed the “Share the Wealth” program, ensuring a standard income for every citizen by taxing the wealthy → since he was quite popular, he made a run for president but was assassinated

FDR did not have an opportunity to appoint judges to the Supreme Court, so the Republican majority fought against him and ruled two of his programs unconstitutional. With a landslide victory in his re-election, FDR looked to find ways to circumvent his opposition from the Supreme Court. The judicial-reorganization bill proposed that the president by allowed to appoint one new judge for each existing member over the age of 70. At the time, that would have allowed him to appoint six additional justices, thus critics referred to it as the “court-packing bill”. 

Steeped in controversy, the bill was rejected. Both parties considered it a challenge to the system of checks and balances. Some Democrats no longer supported FDR, making it more difficult for him to pass further parts of his New Deal. 

The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) were two competing labor organizations created to protect workers prior to the start of the Great Depression. The AFL was dominated by White males organized by trade/ craft. When a group of AFL members sought to expand membership to every worker, regardless of race, gender, or skill, but were denied, they broke away to form the CIO. (Today, they work together.)

Through strikes, both groups were successful in negotiating for better wages and working conditions, but true victory came from the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act which established minimum wages, maximum hours, and outlawed child labor for those under 16 years old. 

The Dust Bowl was a severe environmental and economic crisis that occurred in the Great Plains region of the United States during the 1930s. It was characterized by prolonged drought, severe dust storms, and agricultural devastation. 

Causes:

• Severe drought

• Poor farming practices

• Heavy winds removed topsoil

Effects:

• Migration of farmers to western cities in search of work

• Health problems

• Many lands were ruined; incapable of agriculture

• Creation of the Soil Conservation Service to educate farmers on how to prevent such disasters

Women

• Some programs reinforced traditional gender roles and domestic jobs (primarily held by women) were exempt from relief programs

• Women were accused of taking jobs from men, while being paid less for the same work

African-Americans

• Discrimination meant immigrants and African Americans were often the first to lose their jobs and were often excluded from relief and recovery programs. 

• FDR invited African American leaders to advise him on racial issues and problems faced by their community. Those in this “Black Cabinet” went on to hold positions of authority and power.

Native Americans

• The Indian New Deal was a program that gave Native Americans economic assistance and greater control over their lands and affairs. 

• Other acts were passed to protect Native American culture → Indian Reorganization Act

Mexican-Americans

• Lost jobs to whites who went west in search of work

• Border patrols and deportations were increased

Prior to the global depression, those in power were fearful of another worldwide conflict, with WWI not long forgotten. Understanding another war was the last thing anyone wanted, steps were taken to promote peace and disarmament. During Harding’s presidency, a successful disarmament conference was held in Washington D.C., hosting leaders from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Portugal, and the Netherlands. The following agreements were made to prevent tensions that could escalate to war:

• Five-Power Treaty: the five nations with the largest navies agreed to maintain warship ratios while not fortifying their Pacific possessions (excluding Japan)

• Four-Power Treaty: The US, Great Britain, France, and Japan agreed to respect one another’s Pacific territories.

• Nine-Power Treaty: All nations agreed to respect the Open Door Policy and the territorial integrity of China. 

To further prevent future wars, a peace movement led to the signing of an international peace treaty. The Kellogg-Briand Pact renounced the use of aggressive force to achieve national ends. Unfortunately, it allowed defensive wars and had no means to police violators of the agreement. 

Republican presidents of the 1920s believed a pro-business approach strengthened American prestige and prosperity. Therefore, diplomatic decisions were often based in a manner that would advance American businesses. 

• When Mexico’s constitution mandated government control of natural resources, US investors worked to resolve this issue to protect their interests there.

• Federal troops were moved throughout Latin America as American investments there increased.

• US won oil drilling rights in the Middle East.

• Fordney-McCumber Tariff increased the duties on foreign manufactured goods, which slowed post-war recovery and inspired many nations to pass tariffs of their own against American goods. 

Prior to entering the war, the United States provided supplies and funding to the Allied nations, with the expectation that they would be paid back once the conflict was over. Now that the war was over, Britain and France argued that they were in a far worse state and need the money to rebuild, plus much of the money borrowed went right back to the US, as they were the leading manufacturers of the time. Additionally, the tariffs made it difficult for them to pay the debt. Ironically, Germany was expected the pay the Allies $30 billion in war reparations, even though they were dealing with bankruptcy, inflation, and anarchy after the war’s end.

A compromise was reached thanks to Coolidge’s vice-president, Charles Dawes. The agreement, known as the Dawes Plan, established a payment cycle to help Germany pay back the Allies, so they could then pay back the US. This alleviated financial problems for a time, but ended with the stock market crash of 1929. 

Following the end of WWI, the United States returned to a policy of isolationism, which was then exacerbated by the Great Depression. Hoover worked to remove troops from Latin America while pursuing friendly relations with their leaders. 

Meanwhile, Japan started to threaten peace in the Pacific by invading the Chinese province of Manchuria, defying both the Open Door Policy and the covenant of the League of Nations. This was the just one of an ongoing series of conflicts between China and Japan. The League formally condemned Japan, but had no power to act, showing their weakness to the world. As Japan left the League, other nations realized that acts of aggression couldn’t be stopped, and the organization’s legitimacy was fractured. Japan’s actions also challenged the Nine-Power treaty, so the US refused to recognize the puppet-government of “Manchukuo”, though this decree (called the Stimson Doctrine) was equally ineffective. 

During his first inauguration, FDR expressed his intentions to continue Hoover’s efforts for friendly relations with the countries of Latin America and all nations of the western hemisphere - the good-neighbor policy.  At his instruction, the US pledged to never again intervene in the internal affairs of a Latin American country. Later he personally pledged to submit future disputes to arbitration and warned Europe against acts of aggression. Later he convinced Congress to nullify the Platt Amendment (minus the base at Guantanamo Bay). When Mexico challenged these policies by seizing oil properties owned by American businesses, Roosevelt left it to the companies to settle the disagreement. 

When the depression hit, all focus shifted toward efforts to improve the economy and changed how the US dealt with foreign nations. 

• FDR recognized the Soviet Union in 1933 to increase trade.

• Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) to grant the Philippines independence by 1946, gradually reducing military presence there.

• Lowered tariffs to increase international trade (lowered further if the nations reciprocated)

Much like WWI, the forces that would lead to WWII are quite obvious in hindsight. The rise of totalitarian leaders was made possible by international resentment, fractured governments, and a global depression. Mussolini’s success with fascism in Italy allowed for it to spread into Germany. Desperate Germans desired a strong leader who would return them to their former glory, and Hitler promised to do that and more. Meanwhile the nationalist and militarist policies allowed Japan to increase their power and prominence, unchecked by the League of Nations or anyone else. 

With war on the horizon, the United States once again sought to pursue isolationism. Citizens had no interest in being pulled into a foreign war, especially when faced with economic turmoil within their own borders. Congress ensured neutrality by passing a series of acts:

• Neutrality Act of 1935 - prohibit arms shipments & traveling on ships of belligerents

• Neutrality Act of 1936 - forbade loans/credit to belligerent nations

• Neutrality Act of 1937 - forbade shipment of arms to the opposing sides in the civil war in Spain

To keep Americans in agreement with isolationist policies, the America First Committee was formed. Through speeches and mass media, they warned the country against involvement in the troubles of Europe. 

FDR began to fear the growing strength of Germany and Japan, and tested American opinion through a speech in which he suggested working with other nations to “quarantine” aggressors. The response was overwhelmingly negative, so he dropped the issue while preparing the nation in the event they are brought into another conflict.

Hoping to avoid another war, the democracies of Europe urged a policy of appeasement, or giving in to an aggressor to maintain peace. The League of Nations had no power to stop Japan’s conquest of Manchuria, which only encouraged Germany to plot their own invasions. In the midst of a depression, other nations couldn’t stop them either. Britain and France believed that allowing Hitler little victories would prevent him from engaging the whole continent. Unfortunately, their failure to oppose invasions only convinced Hitler and other dictators that nothing could stop them.

• Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in 1935

• Hitler invaded the buffer zone between Germany and France known as the Rhineland in 1936. A year later, he declared his intention to take the Sudetenland, a German-speaking province of Czechoslovakia. At the Munich conference organized by Britain and France, Hitler was allowed to take the region with the understanding that would be the end to his acts of aggression. 

• In 1937, an American ship caught in the middle of the war between China and Japan is bombed and sunk by Japanese planes, but the US accepted Japan’s apology.

In direct violation of the Munich agreement, Hitler moved on from the Sudetenland to conquer all of Czechoslovakia. Seeing appeasement as a failure, Britain and France agreed to join forces in the event Poland was attacked. They assumed the leader of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin, would support them in this, as fascism and communism were ideologically opposed.  

When approached by both parties to engage in the coming conflict, Stalin decided to side with Hitler, who offered to split Poland with him in exchange for signing a non-aggression pact. With Stalin out of the way, Hitler moved ahead with plans to conquer Poland. 

On September 1, 1939, German tanks and troops crossed the border into Poland, while aircraft and artillery bombarded the capital of Warsaw. This was a test of a new military tactic - blitzkrieg, or lightning war - which involved unloading all of one’s forces upon an enemy at once, defeating them before they had time to react. Unprepared, Poland quickly fell to Hitler, who continued to use this strategy to take Norway, Denmark, and France.

Hitler’s quick conquest of various regions in Europe alarmed Americans, though not enough to make them keen on war. FDR countered isolationist practices and neutrality acts  by gradually extending aid to the Allies, believing that helping Great Britain was essential to U.S. security. Although citizens recognized the need to protect their allies, they remained divided over providing aid to nations at war.

• “Cash & Carry”: policy allowing the US to sell arms to Britain if they paid in cash and transported the goods on their own ships

• Selective Service Act of 1940: peacetime draft for men between 21 and 35 to have troops trained and available in the event of war

• Destroyers-for-Bases Deal: Finding a loophole in the neutrality acts and isolationist tendencies, FDR arranged a trade of older US destroyers in exchange for the right to build military bases on British islands in the Caribbean.

FDR proposed ending the cash-and-carry requirements of the neutrality acts and allowing Britain to buy arms on credit - the Lend-Lease Act. The America First Committee rallied against this proposal, but most of the public agreed with measures to support Britain, so it was passed in 1941.

Knowing it was likely that the US would be brought into the conflict, FDR arranged a secret meeting with Winston Churchill where they could draw up an agreement (known as the Atlantic Charter) to ensure peace after the war ended, including self-determination, free trade, and no territorial expansion. 

As the US navy escorted British ships carrying lend-lease materials, one was attacked by a German submarine. In response, FDR ordered the navy to attack all German ships on sight. 

The outbreak of war in Europe preceded an election year, and Americans wondered if FDR would break tradition and run for a third term. After refusing to answer for months, he finally conceded that he wouldn’t reject the Democratic nomination if offered. Democrats joyfully nominated him again, as Republicans chose Wendell Willkie, who criticized the New Deal and FDR’s departure from Washington’s two-term tradition. FDR won due to his economic policies and his pledge to keep Americans out of war. 

Following his reelection,- FDR announced that America must be “the great arsenal of democracy” and proposed a policy to lend money to Britain, arguing that the US should help nations defend the “four freedoms” - freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. 

Their actions in China and Pacific challenged Japan’s relationship with the United States. This was made worse when Japan joined forces with Germany and Italy to form the Axis Powers. Roosevelt responded by prohibiting the export of steel and scrap iron to all countries except Britain and the nations of the western hemisphere. Japan retaliated by occupying French Indochina, so Roosevelt froze Japanese credits in the US and cut off their access to oil. Attempts to negotiate failed. While FDR worked to secure and strengthen their Pacific forces, Japan’s new leader General Hideki Tojo wanted to strike before the US could respond. 

On the morning of December 7, 1941, Japanese bombers attacked the U.S. naval base of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, ordered to hit every ship. In the end, the surprise attack damaged or sunk 20 ships and 150 planes, killed 2,400 people, and wounded an additional 1,200. Although code breakers had known an attack in the Pacific was imminent, news of the attack stunned the American people, making them hungry for revenge. 

President Roosevelt addressed the nation, calling the event the “day that will live in infamy”. He addressed Congress the following day, urging them to declare war on Japan and its allies. They agreed, officially bringing the US into WWII on the side of the Allied Powers. Together, they focused on the war in Europe, saving the Pacific for after Hitler’s defeat. 

Just like in WWI, the United States quickly worked to mobilize their forces and factories for war. The War Production Board was established to manage war industries and the Office of War Mobilization set production priorities and controlled raw materials, while the Office of Price Administration regulated civilians’ lives by freezing prices, wages, rent, and rationing goods to fight inflation while keeping troops fully supplied. Federal spending increased by 1000%, raising the gross national product and stimulating industrial production, thus bringing the country out of the Great Depression. 

The government also invested heavily in research to improve existing technology that might prove to be the upper hand in the global conflict. The most famous (yet top-secret) of these investments was the Manhattan Project, tasked with the development of the atomic bomb. 

These projects were funded through the increase in income taxes (now required of most Americans) and selling war bonds. With production of consumer goods reduced, Americans were able to save money. 

• “The Good War”: During WWI, government propaganda was geared toward changing public opinion and keeping civilians invested in the war effort. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, few civilians opposed the United States’ entry into the war, so propaganda was meant to improve morale and encourage civilians to conserve resources. The Office of War Information kept the public up-to-date on battles and troop movements, while the media produced movies, music, and radio shows reflecting the heroism of American soldiers. 

• African-Americans enlisted in WWII, and for the first time were allowed to serve as aviators in combat. Still facing discrimination and segregation, civil rights activists encouraged the adoption of the “double v” slogan (victory over fascism, victory of equality) while the NAACP threatened a protest at the nation’s capital. In response, Roosevelt signed an executive order prohibiting discrimination in government and in businesses receiving federal contracts. Furthermore, the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional to deny African-Americans political party membership.

• Some Mexican Americans enlisted or worked in defense industries, while immigration procedures were relaxed to allow farmers (“braceros”) to work during harvest seasons. 

• American Indians also assisted in the war effort and many found new opportunities after the war’s end.

• Japanese Americans faced discrimination and suspicion following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Thousands were forcibly moved to internment camps along the west coast, a measure justified by wartime. 

• Women were allowed to serve the military in non-combative roles, while others were encouraged to take on jobs in defense industries by popular characters like “Rosie the Riveter”. Although they receive less pay, they became the chief income earners in the men’s absence. 

When the US entered WWII, they agreed to focus on the war in Europe with the Allies before seeking their revenge on Japan. After betraying his non-aggression pact with Stalin by invading the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), Hitler was now facing a war on two fronts. To defeat him, Allies employed the following tactics:

• Strategic bombing of military targets

• Use of radar and sonar to evade German submarine attacks

• Ending German occupation of Africa → Operation Torch by General Dwight Eisenhower

• Liberation of France started by the D-Day invasion of Normandy in June 1944

Cornered in the German capital of Berlin, Hitler took his own life on April 30, 1945. His armies surrendered unconditionally a week later. 

As part of their vision for Europe, the Nazis proposed a new racial order, declaring Aryans (Germanic peoples) were the “master race”. This belief led to those deemed “inferior” or “undesirable” for the Nazis’ vision to be stripped of their rights, terrorized, and eventually systematically slaughtered in an event known as the Holocaust. 

The Nuremberg laws, passed in 1935, stripped Jews of their citizenship rights, forbade marriages between Jews and non-Jews, limited the kinds of work Jews could perform, and forced them to display their status on identification cards and clothing. Realizing that the violence and prejudice against them would only grow worse, many Jews sought to leave Germany. After accepting thousands of immigrants, many countries started to close their doors to all immigrants. 

In response to a German diplomat being killed by a young Jewish boy avenging his father’s deportation, the Nazis launched an attack on the Jewish community. On November 9, 1938, Nazis attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues across Germany, causing millions of dollars in damage and killing almost 100 Jews. This event was known as Kristallnacht, or the “night of broken glass”. 

When Hitler realized he would not get rid of all Jews through emigration, he ordered all Jews to be moved to designated cities. Nazis herded Jews into ghettos, which were disgusting, overcrowded, and surrounded by barbed wire fences. The Nazis hoped the Jews would die of starvation and disease, but many hung on and maintained their traditions. 

Dissatisfied with the fact that thousands of Jews lived in his domain despite his best efforts to get rid of them, Hitler devised a new plan - the “Final Solution” - a government-orchestrated genocide of the Jewish people. Nazi troops began rounding up all “undesirable” groups. Jews, as well as, homosexuals, the Roma (gypsies), those with terminal illnesses and the mentally/physically/ emotionally disabled, were either shot on sight or ushered to slave-labor prisons known as concentration camps. In 1942, the Nazis built extermination camps equipped with massive gas chambers that could kill thousands of people in one day. Crematoriums were built to burn the bodies of those they exterminated. 

Under Nazi rule, six million European Jews were killed. Fewer than four million Jews survived the Holocaust. Another 5 million deaths were distributed among the other non-Aryan populations that “threatened” Germany. Hitler and the Nazis came close to accomplishing their goal of Jewish extermination. 

In Europe, the US was joined by other Allied forces. In the Pacific, the US was largely on their own. Additionally, the battles of the Pacific depended on naval power, as Japan controlled most of the territory and had decimated the American navy, much of which had been based in Pearl Harbor. To succeed, the US had to adapt.

• Island-hopping strategy is used to slowly conquer territory, bringing American forces closer to Japan.

• Decoding messages to prevent or counter Japanese movements.

  • Battle of Midway - June 4-7, 1942 (turning point, halted Japanese expansion)

  • Battle of Okinawa - April to June, 1945 (use of kamikazes - suicide pilots)

• Use of the Atom Bomb

  • Due to the fact a land invasion of Japan would be costly, newly inaugurated President Truman sought to avoid such a measure. Following the successful testing of the atom bomb by J. Robert Oppenheimer and his team in July, the Allies called upon Japan to unconditionally surrender or face utter annihilation. When they refused, Truman ordered the first atomic bomb to be dropped on Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945 and a second on Nagasaki three days later. The loss of thousands of Japanese civilians and absolute destruction of major cities convinced Japan to surrender. 

In 1944, in the midst of WWII, FDR won a fourth term, though the Democrats replaced his radical and unmanageable vice-president Henry Wallace with Missouri senator Harry Truman. FDR’s health was failing, and they needed to be sure to have someone capable in the position in the event of the president’s untimely death. Considering FDR died three months after his inauguration, this was a wise decision.

President Truman oversaw the end of the war in Europe, ordered the use of atomic weapons in Japan, negotiated for peace, and worked to return the country to a state of normalcy following the war’s end. 

• Casablanca (January 1943)

  • Roosevelt & Churchill

  • Casablanca, Africa

  • Invade Sicily & Italy to order the unconditional surrender of the Axis Powers

• Tehran (November 1943)

  • Roosevelt, Churchill, & Stalin (Big Three)

  • Tehran, Iran

  • Liberate France & Soviets would help fight Japan

• Yalta (February 1945)

  • Roosevelt, Churchill, & Stalin (Big Three)

  • Yalta, USSR

  • Policies for the post-war period:

    • Joint occupation of Germany

    • Free elections for eastern European countries → self-determination

    • Soviets enter war against Japan

    • Soviets control half of the Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands, and have special concessions in Manchuria

    • Conference for the creation of a new peace organization → United Nations

Following Germany’s surrender, the only remaining member of the Big Three was Stalin, as FDR had died and Churchill had been replaced. To continue peace negotiations, Stalin met with the newly elected prime minister Clement Attlee and newly inaugurated president Harry Truman in Potsdam, Germany in the summer of 1945. The three leaders agreed to the following:

• Demand unconditional surrender of Japan

• Divide Germany and Berlin into four zones of occupation

  • Stalin wanted to be tough on Germany and saw the US atomic weapons as a threat

  • Truman wanted to be tough on the Soviets, as communism challenged democratic principles.

• Deadliest war ever: 70-80 million military personnel & civilians worldwide 

  • ⅓ Soviets

  • 400,000 Americans killed, 800,000 wounded (second only to the Civil War in terms of American lives lost)

• Costly

  • Europe & Japan in ruins

  • US intact but had massive debt → became wealthiest country

• Prestige

  • Because the US played a major role in peace negotiations and settlement after the war, they became recognized as a global superpower.

• Cooperation

  • Unlike the League of Nations, Congress agreed to become a member of the new United Nations.