Period 2

Learning Objectives:

Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754.
Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
Explain causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time.
Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time.
Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions.
Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery.
Explain how and why the movement of a variety of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of American culture over time.
Explain how and why the different goals and interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed themselves and their relationship with Britain.
Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America.

Colonization of the New World

Motivations for 17th Century Settlement

After the initial wave of settlers, more Europeans saw the Americas as a land of opportunity, a chance for a fresh start, a place to worship in peace, and a place to make a name for yourself. Rich in natural resources and abundant in land, immigrants from all over Europe came in droves. While life in colonial America was hard, those that survived often had a better life than they would've had in their country of origin.

The 13 Colonies

The English colonies developed regional or sectional differences based on many influences including topography, natural resources, climate, and the background of their settlers. Starting with Jamestown in 1607 and ending with Georgia in 1733, three types of colonies developed:

Corporate: Operated by joint-stock companies, ex. Jamestown
Royal: Under the direct authority and rule of the king’s government, ex. Virginia
Proprietary: Under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by the king, ex. Maryland & Pennsylvania

Jamestown, Virginia

Established in 1607 by the Virginia Company (chartered by King James I) was the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Hoping to strike it rich upon arrival, the settlers of Jamestown (mostly men) were grossly unprepared for the untamed wilderness of North America. First, the area they settled in was marshy, which allowed for the rampant spread of malaria and dysentery. Second, thinking they would find gold, most of the equipment they brought with them was for mining, not building or harvesting. Lastly, these English gentlemen were unaccustomed to hard labor, so they failed to plant crops or routinely hunt game, leading to the "starving time" as their first winter was called.

Through the leadership of Captain John Smith, the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop by John Rolfe, and cooperation with the local tribes through Pocahontas and other Native American leaders, Jamestown survived and eventually thrived.

New England

The next set of colonies were founded in present-day Massachusetts by dissenters (or "Separatists") of the Anglican Church. Plymouth was founded in 1620 by families of Pilgrims who traveled over on the Mayflower and Massachusetts Bay (now Boston) was founded roughly ten years later by Puritans. Both groups sought the chance to escape persecution and practice their beliefs in peace, but were soon joined by many others who hoped to make their fortune in the New World. The strong beliefs of the Pilgrims and Puritans established their way of life, as all government was centered around religious doctrine, with church officials also being leaders for the colony. Although they did not share their faith, the settlers of what we now call New England made peace with the native tribes and depended on them for survival.

As time passed, people started to resent the rigid lifestyles of the Separatists, and sought refuge nearby, creating more colonies, including Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire.

Mid-Atlantic or Middle Colonies

Possibly the most diverse area of the thirteen original colonies were those in the middle. The people came from all over Europe, practiced several different religions and spoke different languages, and made the journey for a variety of reasons. Due to their location and diversity, these colonies often became major hubs for commerce, with key ports established in Philadelphia and New York.

New York
- Original the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam
- Major trading center
New Jersey
- Split off from the territory of New York
- Attracted settlers through generous land grants and religious freedom
Pennsylvania
- Led by William Penn, the Quakers settled the land west of New Jersey
- “Holy Experiment” - liberal government with equality for all
Delaware
- Penn granted three lower counties of PA their own assembly, which then became its own colony in 1702

Southern Colonies

With the creation of the Anglican Church, Catholics were just as unwelcome in England (if not more so) than Protestants and sought a place of their own. In 1632, Cecilius Calvert was granted a charter of land to serve as a haven for him and his fellow Catholics, and they named it after the most sacred woman of their faith - Maryland.

As a reward for helping him gain the throne, Charles II granted a huge tract of land between Virginia and Spanish Florida to eight nobles. In 1663, these nobles became the lord proprietors of the Carolinas. In 1729, two royal colonies, North & South Carolina were formed.

In 1732, Georgia became the 13th and final British colony between Canada and the Caribbean was chartered. Established by James Oglethorpe in 1733, Georgia was the final colony established by the English. It was used as both an overflow prison and buffer colony to protect the southern plantations from the Spanish.

Beyond providing protection from Spain, these colonies served a great purpose in cultivating cash crops like rice, indigo, cotton, and tobacco for England.

Early Laws & Forms of Government

Mayflower Compact:
- Written agreement created by the Pilgrims upon their arrival in Plymouth; first written constitution of the US
House of Burgesses:
- Virginia’s limited self-government
- Members can make laws and levy taxes
- English governor & company council in London have veto power
Act of Religious Toleration:
- 1649 act passed by the Maryland Assembly granting religious freedom to all Christians
Slave code:
- Laws restricting enslaved peoples’ rights, largely due to slaveholders’ fears of rebellion

Life in the American Colonies

Religion

Although each region has its own religious groups, the American settlers were largely Protestant. Initially, religion had a strong role in colonial society and government. As more immigrants arrived, however, the government reduced their support for local churches. This shift inspired many religious leaders like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield to preach of God’s wrath and that only the truly faithful would be saved from the fires of Hell. The Great Awakening, as this shift was known, challenged settlers to reconsider their concept of authority (beginning ideas of revolution) and inspired them to read the Bible for themselves (leading to new denominations).

Government

Despite their growing differences, American colonists did establish a structure of government similar to those seen in English communities. Most colonies had a royally-appointed governor, with a legislature who would vote to accept or reject the governor’s proposed laws. The legislature had two houses: an assembly of elected white male property owners and an upper house of elected representatives or men chosen by the king to help the governor lead. Within the colonies were smaller local governments which would meet regularly to vote on public issues. In all cases, only white males had a vote, and even then, they typically had to have education, property, and/or wealth to be considered worthy of an opinion. With the changes in society, the number of colonists that fell into that category continued to grow.

The Enlightenment inspired many to question authority and challenge tradition. Colonists looked to break free of the shackles of religious doctrine and redefine the idea of government. John Locke believed that all people are born free and equal, with three essential rights - life, liberty, and property. It is the role of government to protect these rights, and failure to do so justifies rebellion. His ideas, as well as those of other Enlightenment thinkers, are what primed the colonists for rebellion.

Society

Free from the rules and expectations of their countries of origin and immersed in a melting pot of various cultures and ideas, the settlers of the American colonies established their own society, often unique to the region in which they lived but also distinctly different from England.

Religious toleration
End of hereditary aristocracy
More opportunities for social mobility
- All (white) men could own land, conduct business, and participate in politics
People married younger & had more children
Overall improved standard of living

Economy

By the 1750s, England was very dependent on the output of their colonies for the trade of their manufactured goods. This system utilized a monetary system based in paper currency and a network of roads and ports to maximize efficiency of trade. While dependent on all of the colonies, each region was specialized in a particular product.

New England: largely subsistence farmers, but involved in logging, fishing, ship-building, trading, and rum distilling
Middle Colonies: harvested wheat and corn, also large centers of trade through the growth of major port cities (Philadelphia & New York)
Southern Colonies: combination of subsistence farming for families and large plantations for cash crops like tobacco, cotton, rice, and indigo

Forming Alliances

As more settlers came to the Americas and the colonies expanded, the relationship with neighboring tribes became less cooperative and more hostile. For their own protection, the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, and Connecticut formed a military alliance known as the New England Confederation. Though it only lasted until 1684, it established a precedent for united colonial cooperation that would be useful in future conflicts.

The Native Americans also made alliances to protect themselves from the encroaching settlers. The Iroquois Confederacy was a group of allied American Indian nations that included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and later the Tuscarora and the Powhatan Confederacy was a large and powerful confederation of Algonquian-speaking American Indians in Virginia that had a complicated relationship with the settlers of Jamestown.

Conflict

Pequot War (1636-1637): conflict between New England settlers, their Narragansett allies, and the Pequots, who the English saw as a threat and an obstacle to their expansion
Metacom’s War (1675-1676): conflict between New England settlers and the region’s American Indians → a.k.a. King Philip's War
- Alliance between colonists & natives against the Wampanoag
- Victory for NEC
- Ended most Native American resistance of colonial expansion in New England
Pueblo revolt (1680): uprising of Pueblo Indians against Spanish forces in New Mexico that led to the Spaniard's temporary retreat from the area; sparked by mistreatment and suppression of Pueblo culture and religion
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676): uprising in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon over the governor’s unwillingness to intervene in conflicts between settlers and the Native Americans, as well as, their lack of representation in the House of Burgesses
- Demonstrated class differences between wealthy plantation owners and poor farmers
- Highlighted conflict between colonists and natives on the frontier
- Beginnings of colonial resistance to royal control
King William’s War (1689-1697): began as a conflict over competing French and English interests on the European continent but soon spread to the American frontier

Britain Tightens the Reins

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, trade became truly global due to the settlement and cultivation of the Americas. Therefore, policies were established to ensure European wealth and prosperity. Most countries established the practice of mercantilism, an economic system centered on maintaining a favorable balance of trade for the home country, with more gold and silver flowing into the country than out. To help carry out this practice, Parliament passed the Navigation Acts, a series of laws that prohibited smuggling, established guidelines for legal commerce, and set duties on trade items.

While the theory of mercantilism called for strict enforcement of trade regulations, it was not easy to do, so England increasingly practiced a unofficial policy of salutary neglect (disregarding trade regulations and allowing the colonies limited self-government). Beyond the difficulty of governing from several thousand miles away, England was also distracted by constant turmoil and their agents were easily bribed by colonists.

When King James II took control in 1685, he sought to gain more control over the colonies by combining them into larger administrative units and dissolving the representative assemblies. This consolidation of the northeastern colonies is known as the Dominion of New England, and it was very unpopular with the colonists who had become accustomed to their style of government and resented the addition of new taxes and laws by the new king. Luckily for the colonists, King James II did not reign for long, and was overthrown through the bloodless Glorious Revolution. The new rulers of England, William and Mary, established a constitutional monarchy and ended the Dominion of New England.

Slavery

Plantation owners in the southern colonies could strike it rich by harvesting cash crops like tobacco that Europeans were desperate for. Unfortunately, they struggled to find labor for these plantations. People were unwilling to work for low wages while risking their lives to disease, food shortages, and conflicts with the Native Americans. Initially, labor in the colonies was largely supplied by indentured servants - individuals who were contracted for a period of employment in exchange for passage to the Americas and basic living accommodations. Once their contract was up, however, their employers were out of a labor source. Additionally, fewer people were coming to the colonies in search of work as wages increased in England.

As previously mentioned, the slave trade was on the decline prior to the discovery of the Americas, but with a need for a stable and dependable workforce that was cheap and immune to typical European diseases, the African slave trade was reignited. The New England colonies were largely made up of small family farms with little need of additional labor, while the Middle and Southern colonies had a demand for work, either manning the ships in the harbor or maintaining the plantations. Recognizing the benefits of slave labor, laws were drafted to ensure slaves and any of their descendants remained in bondage for life, which promised a endless labor force and the continuation of the brutal triangular trade. Furthermore, the restriction of rights and liberties of Africans in the Americas led to widespread racism as colonists saw Africans as inferior.

To believe that Africans willing accepted lives in bondage would be greatly misguided. Despite their limited freedoms, slaves still clung to the traditions of their homeland even as they adopted Christianity, maintaining customs through song and story-telling. Many would rebel against working conditions by breaking tools or going on hunger strikes. Some even braved escape, knowing that if they were caught, they’d be severely punished.

Population Growth

Despite the struggles of the first English colonists, those that managed to survive the harsh winters, battles with starvation, and conflict with the natives found a way to thrive. In 70 years, the population in the English colonies went from 250,000 to 2.5 million, largely due to massive immigration and increasing birth rates.

Immigrants were not just from England, Scotland, and Wales, but also Germany, Ireland, France, Sweden, and Holland. The reasons for their journey were the same as those original settlers - desire for land and wealth, freedom to practice their beliefs without persecution, and/or the chance for a new life.

Obviously this boom in population created a rift between the colonists and their Native American neighbors, as they increasingly encroached on their ancestral lands. Some tribes became hostile, actively fight against colonial expansion and creating strategic alliances with other tribes to protect their land. Others chose to find ways to forge alliances and benefit from the colonists’ presence, largely through trade.

Other Aspects of Colonial Life

Art & Architecture

As fear of Native Americans faded and wealth increased, colonists looked to display their prosperity through family portraits and ornate houses. Most literature was limited to religion and politics, but some wrote poetry (Phillis Wheatley) or witty advice (Ben Franklin).

Education

Most schools in the colonies were sponsored by the local churches, ensuring their patrons were able to read the Bible and write of God’s grace. This included the first colleges, which were designed to prepare future ministers. As time passed, schools became less sectarian, expanding the purpose of education beyond knowing the Bible and basic skills include medicine and law.

Press

News spread through a postal system and local printing firms, providing information about recent events, advertisements for goods and services, and any other information essential to the maintenance of the colonies.

Period 2 Quizlet

Period 1 & 2 Kahoot

Period 2

Key Vocabulary

Act of Toleration: Passed in 1649 in Maryland, it granted religious freedom to all Christians but provided for the death penalty for Jews and atheists.
Anglicization: adoption of English customs and traditions that shaped colonial culture and politics in 18th century North America
Anglo-Powhatan Wars: series of conflicts in the 1620s between the Powhatan Confederacy and English settlers in Virginia and Maryland
Antinomianism: A theological doctrine that asserts that faith alone is necessary for salvation, and that moral law is of no use or obligation.
Bacon's Rebellion: uprising in 1676 in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon; Bacon and his followers (most of which were once indentured servants) were upset over the governor's unwillingness to send troops to protect them from American Indians and their lack of representation in the House of Burgesses
Calvinism: a new sect of Protestantism based on the beliefs of John Calvin in which civil judges and reformed ministers ruled over a Christian society
cash crop: a crop produced for profit rather than subsistence, like tobacco or indigo
Charter of Liberties: A document granted by William Penn to the colonists of Pennsylvania, providing them with rights and privileges.
Church of England: national church established by King Henry VIII after he split with the Catholic Church in 1534; becomes predominant faith in England by law
colonization: the process of settling and controlling an already inhabited area for the economic benefit of the settlers, or colonizers
common law: law established from custom and the standards set by previous judicial rulings
Corporate colonies: Colonies operated by joint-stock companies, such as the Virginia Company.
Covenant Chain: an alliance of Iroquois leaders and colonists made in Albany in 1677 in hopes of salvaging their lucrative fur trade and preventing further conflict
Dominion of New England: A unified government imposed by King James II on several New England colonies in 1686.
enclosure movements: a push in the 18th & 19th centuries to take communal land use by several people in a village and change it to privately-owned land, usually with walls, fences or hedges around it
English Civil War: a series of civil wars between Royalists and Parliamentarians in England & Wales from 1642- 1652; ends with the restoration of a king but begins shift to a constitutional monarchy
Enlightenment: An intellectual movement in Europe and America during the 17th and 18th centuries, characterized by a focus on reason, science, and individual rights.
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: Considered the first written constitution in America, established a representative government in Connecticut.
Glorious Revolution: The peaceful overthrow of King James II of England in 1688, leading to increased parliamentary power and the ascension of William and Mary to the throne.
Great Awakening: A religious revival movement in the American colonies during the 1730s and 1740s, characterized by emotional sermons and a focus on personal piety.
Halfway covenant: A Puritan practice in New England allowing partial church membership to the children of church members who had not yet experienced conversion.
Headright system: A land distribution system in colonial Virginia that granted 50 acres of land to settlers who paid for their own or others' passage to the colony.
Hereditary aristocracy: A social system in which elite status and power are passed down through family lines.
Holy Experiment: Term associated with William Penn's vision for the Pennsylvania colony as a place of religious tolerance and social equality.
household mode of production: communal system of exchange in which men and women shared skills and resources to benefit the community as a whole
Huguenots: French Protestants
imperialism: a policy of expanding the border and increasing the global power of a nation, typically by military force
Indentured Servitude: servants contracted to work for a set period of time without pay; many early migrants to the English colonies indentured themselves in exchange for the price of passage to North America
- Indentured servants: Laborers who worked for a set period of time (usually 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to the New World and, often, eventual freedom and land.
indulgences: documents which absolved the buyer of sin; "get out of Hell free card" that many reformers opposed the practice of selling
inflation: decreased value of national currency; causes costs to rise
Iroquois Confederacy: a group of American Indian nations that included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and later the Tuscarora; dissolved in the 1700s
Jamestown: The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in Virginia in 1607.
joint-stock company: groups in which large numbers of investors owned stock, allowing for the quick accumulation of funds with great risk and reward; used to fund ventures to the New World
King George's War: war between France, Spain, and England fought in North America during 1739-1748; secured Georgia for the English
King William's War: beginning as a conflict over competing French and English interests on the European continent but soon spread to the American frontier during 1689-1697; both sides depended on American Indians as allies
Leisler's Rebellion: class revolt in New York in 1689 led by merchant Jacob Leister; urban artisans and landless renters rebelled against new taxes and centralized rule
libel: a false written statement designed to damage the reputation of its subject
Mayflower Compact: An agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, establishing a form of self-government in Plymouth Colony.
Mercantilism: Economic theory that a nation's wealth is measured by its stock of gold and silver, and that a country should export more than it imports to accumulate wealth.
Metacom's War: conflict between New England settlers and the region's American Indians during 1675-1676; settlers emerged victorious but both sides suffered numerous casualties
Middle Passage: the brutal second leg of the forced journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas, millions of which were abused, neglected, and/or died before their arrival
Navigation Acts: Series of British regulations restricting colonial trade to benefit the British economy.
New England Confederation: A military alliance between several New England colonies formed in 1643 for defense against Native American and French threats.
Nonsectarian: Not affiliated with any particular religious sect or denomination.
patriarchal family: model of family in which the fathers (or eldest male) have absolute authority over wives, children, and servants; widely accepted by colonial Americans
Pequot War: conflict between New England settlers, their Narragansett allies, and the Pequots during 1636-1637; English settlers saw the Pequots as a threat to their current and future settlements
Pilgrims: Separatist Puritans who migrated to North America on the Mayflower and established the Plymouth Colony in 1620.
Powhatan Confederacy: large & powerful alliance of Algonquian-speaking American Indians in Virginia; had a complicated relationship with the settlers of Jamestown
Poor Richard’s Almanack: A publication by Benjamin Franklin containing weather forecasts, practical household tips, and proverbs.
predestination: religious belief that God has pre-determined who is worth of salvation, thus it could not be earned through good works or penance
Proprietary colonies: Colonies granted to individuals or groups by the British Crown, who had considerable autonomy in governing.
Protestant Reformation: a movement which established new forms of Christianity based on disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church
Pueblo revolt: 1680 uprising of Pueblo Indians against the Spanish forces in New Mexico that led to the Spaniards' temporary retreat; sparked by mistreatment and suppression of religion/culture
Puritans: English Protestants who sought to "purify" the Church of England from within, and later settled in Massachusetts Bay Colony.
- Puritan Migration (first Great Migration): the mass exodus of European Puritans to New England in the early 1600s
Quakers: Members of the Religious Society of Friends, who believe in direct communication with God and nonviolence.
Queen Anne's War: (aka War of the Spanish Succession) war over control of Spain and its colonies
redemptioners: immigrants who borrowed money from shipping agents to cover the costs of transport to America, loans that were repaid (or "redeemed") by colonial employers; similar to indentured servitude
Royal colonies: Colonies under the direct control of the British Crown, such as Virginia after 1624.
Sectarian: Relating to a particular religious group or sect, often with exclusive beliefs or practices.
seditious: behavior or language aimed at starting a rebellion against a government
Separatists: Radical Puritans who wanted to separate from the Church of England and establish their own independent congregations.
slave code: laws restricting enslaved peoples' rights, largely due to slaveholders' fears of rebellion
Stono Rebellion: uprising in South Carolina in 1739 by enslaved Africans and African Americans which led to intense fear of future slave revolts
Subsistence farming: Farming practiced to provide for the basic needs of the farmer and their family, rather than for commercial profit.
theologians: people who study religious texts and history
Triangular trade: A system of trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, involving the exchange of slaves, raw materials, and manufactured goods.
Tuscarora War: war launched by Tuscarora Indians from 1711 to 1715 against European settlers in North Carolina and their allies from the Yamasee, Catawba, and Cherokee nations; Tuscarora lost their lands when they signed a peace treaty and many joined the Iroquois Confederacy
veto: right to block a decision by a governing body
Virginia Company: A joint-stock company chartered by King James I to establish settlements in the New World.
Virginia House of Burgesses: The first elected legislative assembly in the New World, established in the Virginia Colony in 1619.
Walking Purchase: treaty in 1737 that allowed Pennsylvania to expand its boundaries at the expense of the Delaware Indians; likely a forgery, this document allowed the British to add territory that could be walked off in a day and a half
Yamasee War: a Pan-American Indian war from 1715 to 1717 led by the Yamasee who intended, but failed, to oust the British from South Carolina

Key People

Sir Edmund Andros: Governor of the Dominion of New England, known for his authoritarian rule and unpopular policies.
Nathaniel Bacon: a Virginia colonist who led an armed rebellion against the colonial government in 1676 as a response to perceived corruption and the lack of protection against Native American attacks on the frontier. The rebellion highlighted tensions between the colonial elite and settlers on the frontier.
John Bartram: A colonial botanist and explorer known for his work in cataloging American plants.
Sir William Berkeley: the colonial governor of Virginia during the mid-17th century who played a significant role in shaping the colony's development and was known for his policies that favored wealthy planters. His rule was marked by conflicts with Native Americans and Bacon's Rebellion.
John Cabot: An Italian explorer who explored the coast of North America under the commission of King Henry VII of England in 1497 and 1498.
Cecil Calvert: Also known as Lord Baltimore, he was granted the charter for the Maryland colony in 1632 and played a significant role in its settlement.
John Calvin: a French theologian and key figure in the Protestant Reformation best known for his teachings on predestination and his development of Calvinism, a branch of Protestant Christianity. His ideas had a profound impact on the religious and social history of Europe and influenced the development of Puritanism in England and the American colonies.
John Copley: An American painter of portraits and historical scenes during the American colonial period.
Oliver Cromwell: an English military and political leader who played a significant role in the English Civil War and the subsequent establishment of the Commonwealth of England. As Lord Protector, he ruled as a virtual dictator from 1653 until his death in 1658. His rule was marked by religious toleration and military expansion.
John Davenport: A Puritan minister who co-founded the colony of New Haven, Connecticut.
Jonathan Edwards: A New England preacher and theologian associated with the Great Awakening, known for his sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."
Benjamin Franklin: a statesman, diplomat, scientist, inventor, and author whose experiments with electricity, inventions (such as the lightning rod and bifocals), and role in drafting the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution made him one of the most influential figures of his time.
Andrew Hamilton: Lawyer who successfully defended John Peter Zenger in his trial, helping to establish freedom of the press in America.
Thomas Hooker: A Puritan minister who founded the colony of Connecticut and advocated for democratic principles in government.
Anne Hutchinson: a Puritan spiritual leader and an important figure in the early history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; held religious meetings in her home and challenged the authority of the male ministers, which led to her banishment from the colony in 1638, highlighting issues of religious freedom and the role of women in colonial society.
John Locke: an English philosopher and political theorist who is best known for his writings on government and individual rights; his ideas on natural rights, social contract theory, and the separation of powers had a significant influence on Enlightenment thinkers and the development of democratic governments.
Martin Luther: a German theologian and key figure in the Protestant Reformation best known for his Ninety-Five Theses, which criticized the Catholic Church's practices and led to the establishment of Protestantism. His ideas sparked religious and social upheaval in Europe and had a lasting impact on Christianity.
Cotton Mather: A Puritan minister and author in colonial Massachusetts, known for his role in the Salem witch trials and his prolific writings.
Metacom: Also known as King Philip, he was a Native American leader who led a rebellion against English settlers in New England in 1675-1676.
Baron de Montesquieu: a French philosopher and political thinker of the Enlightenment best known for his book, The Spirit of the Laws, in which he advocated for the separation of powers and the importance of checks and balances in government. His ideas influenced the development of modern political science and the design of democratic systems.
James Oglethorpe: Founder of the Georgia colony, which was initially intended as a haven for debtors and a buffer against Spanish Florida.
William Penn: an English Quaker and the founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, a colony in North America established as a haven for religious freedom and practiced peaceful relations with Native Americans. His ideas on religious tolerance and democratic governance had a significant influence on the development of the United States.
Pocahontas: a Native American woman from the Powhatan tribe who played a significant role in early colonial history best known for her association with the English settlers at Jamestown, particularly her friendship with John Smith and marriage to John Rolfe.
John Rolfe: an English settler who is best known for introducing tobacco as a cash crop in the Virginia colony. His marriage to Pocahontas helped to establish peaceful relations between the Powhatan tribe and the English settlers.
John Smith: an English soldier, explorer, and colonial leader who played a crucial role in the establishment of the Jamestown colony in Virginia; best known for his leadership and survival skills during the colony's early years. His accounts of his adventures in Virginia helped to promote colonization and shaped early English perceptions of North America.
John Winthrop: an English Puritan lawyer and one of the leading figures in the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He served as the colony's governor for many years and played a crucial role in shaping its development; best known for his sermon, "A Model of Christian Charity," in which he articulated the concept of the "City upon a Hill" and the idea of Massachusetts as a religious refuge.
Voltaire: (real name was François-Marie Arouet) a French philosopher, writer, and advocate for civil liberties and religious tolerance; best known for his wit, satire, and criticism of the French monarchy and the Catholic Church. His ideas had a significant influence on the Enlightenment and the development of liberal thought.
Benjamin West: An American neoclassical painter known for historical scenes and portraits.
Phillis Wheatley: The first African American woman to publish a book of poetry in America, known for her works on religious and moral themes.
George Whitefield: An English preacher and key figure in the Great Awakening, known for his powerful oratory and large outdoor sermons.
Roger Williams: A Puritan minister who founded the colony of Rhode Island after being banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony due to his beliefs in religious freedom and separation of church and state.
John Winthrop: The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and a prominent Puritan leader.
John Peter Zenger: A colonial printer whose trial in 1735 helped establish the principle of freedom of the press in America.

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