Establishing the Context

An important component of any organizational avalanche risk management program is a written avalanche safety plan. This document will mirror and support the risk management framework of the organization. If we go back to the Snow and Avalanche Risk Management Framework we can tie in the elements of an avalanche safety plan to the different steps in the framework, starting with establishing the context, and terrain identification. Establishing the context would include a general overview of the organization and its goals, along with the goals of the avalanche safety plan, and how it fits with other winter operations or risk management plans. Terrain identification usually takes the form of a terrain catalog of some kind, which identifies all avalanche areas and paths that pose a threat to the operation.

Hazard and Risk assessment continues by reviewing historical data, like return frequencies and magnitude; significant past events; and weather, snowpack analysis. Industrial and highway applications often include the avalanche hazard index, maximum predicted runouts, computer modeling of potential avalanches, potential impact pressures to infrastructure, and similar considerations.

A weather and avalanche forecasting plan will incorporate this information and develop a methodology to address the problems. Using the Conceptual Model of Avalanche Hazard allows decision-makers to reach the risk treatment phase. A public forecasting office would stop here with a risk communication tool such as an avalanche bulletin tied to the North American Public Avalanche Danger Scale. Other operations may use this scale but also may have separate hazard scales that consider different elements at risk

For these operations, hazard mitigation strategies are addressed. This may include different plans which can be used individually or in combination depending on circumstances. Generally, this phase will be an overview, focusing on strategy, but may also drill down to a tactical level. In addition to mitigation strategies, it would also include risk communication plans, access, and personnel controls, relevant rules and policies, and where appropriate, contingency plans, like evacuation, interlodge, etc.

Creating an effective avalanche safety plan is a complex task, and it is worth reviewing some important considerations in detail. When establishing the context, the temporal and spatial scale of the operation are critical factors. Industrial and highway operations usually run 24 hours a day, so the avalanche safety program does too. A guiding operation may only have avalanche concerns during the workday. A ski area will have a very different plan for the part of the day where they are open to the public than for the times when it is just employees on site. In year-round industrial and highway applications, avalanches only threaten the operation for a short period of time each year, so they may not rank near the top of the risk management hierarchy. Spatial scale also guides the approach of a program. Some roadways are simply too large of an area to manage effectively with mitigation and require different plans for different road sections. Large operations may isolate or close off certain areas for the winter, or under certain conditions. Other areas may not need any risk management measures at all.

Another key factor is the idea of control of the elements at risk. Some risk management tactics, like avalanche closures, travel restrictions, company safety policies, and Personal Protective Equipment, require cooperation from the people at risk. When these people are all employees, compliance is generally high as the company holds economic leverage over them, and they risk their jobs by violating policy. Many operations though, have a mix of different people and exercise varying levels of control over them. In a guiding operation, for example, the guides are employees, but the clients are not. Although they are generally under the direct control of their guide, they may still misunderstand or ignore instructions.

Operations like ski resorts rely on guests to heed warning signs and closures with very little direct control and too few personnel to police the entire area. Public highways have good control over maintenance personnel, but rely on a combination of warning signs and closures to manage the hazard to the public, and have little control over their actions.

Risk management for the organization itself is the central goal of the avalanche safety plan. Avalanches can create financial liability, damage a group’s reputation and public image, and undermine business goals. These risks are a step away from the avalanche risk itself, and are not generally addressed directly in the safety plan, but are important considerations and are reflected in the plan. The avalanche safety plan is the first line of defense for the organization against these types of risks. Well-managed groups, often referred to as ‘Highly Reliable Organizations’ craft an avalanche safety plan that meets industry best practices, has a transparent and repeatable decision-making process, and documents in detail how they address the avalanche risk each day. Documentation and thoroughness are key. If an accident occurs, investigators will start by examining the organization’s risk management plan and documentation. In terms of litigation, plaintiffs often find it easier to portray negligence through poor documentation or execution of the risk management plan than to question the judgment of an individual like a guide or forecaster.