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Much of the world is actually bilingual.
Much of the world is actually bilingual.
Information take from: Bilingualism: A Cognitive and Neural View of Dual Language Experience Judith F. Kroll, School of Education, University of California, Irvine, and Guadalupe A. Mendoza, School of Education, University of California, Irvine https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.900 Published online: 15 August 2022
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This paper describes a range of research studies that have tracked brain activity over time using functional magnetic resource imaging [fMRI] of students learning a second language.
Bilingualism is much more common around the world than in New Zealand and much of the world is actually bilingual.
Some can learn two languages at the same time (simultaneous bilingualism)
Some learn another language some time after the first (sequential bilingualism)
Language learning can occur at any age
There is no critical sensitive period for language learning in the first 5 years of life - brain plasticity indicates this is less so.
Learning another language will not harm the first language
'When bilinguals read or listen to words in one language, the other language comes online in parallel, producing joint activation even when individuals intend to use one language alone" this is known as Cross-language activation.
It has been shown that the language not being used, is not harmed or diminished in anyway by the use of the other language. This is a basic feature of bilingualism.
So; a child with Samoan as their first language, when using English, will not be diminishing their Samoan language ability, but will in fact be activating that language pathway in the brain when using English. The opposite is also therefore true.
In English mainstream settings the "language of learning" is English. Let's not forget those English only students that struggle with academic language proficiency. These can be class as Academic language learners as well and will benefit from the same strategies used for those who have another language background.
Benefits for the second language (ESOL) learner :
Benefits for the second language (ESOL) learner :
Extra sounds at their disposal
When bilinguals plan speech in one language, the phonology (sounds) of the other language are also engaged, bringing extra resources for learning to the student. Babies exposed to more than one language appear to be more open to speech sounds in other languages than their monolingual counterparts, something that has been called the “perceptual wedge” in recent studies tracking brain activity in young bilingually exposed infants. (Petitto et al., 2012).
Language knowledge is used in two languages
When learning a second language (English in the case of a Samoan speaker), the linguistic or language knowledge of the first language (Samoan) is able to be used for the second language (English). This also works in reverse, as there is a dynamic process always in play when using two languages.
First language is strengthened
The first language is also changed when learning a second language in such a way that the (bilingual) learner is able to use both languages in an adaptive way according to the circumstances. The first language is changed, it is strengthened as well by this process.
Other non language abilities are strengthened
The bilingual babies also showed activation of brain areas involved in executive function, suggesting that exposure to two languages has consequences beyond language itself. Other studies showed advanced perceptual attentiveness in bilingual babies (vs monolingual) as well as being faster and more accurate at some cognitive tasks (vocabulary assessment).
Key information for schools about bilingual | ESOL learners.
Key information for schools about bilingual | ESOL learners.
Dr Jannie van Hees presents a series of short (between 6-8 minutes) videos for schools to help understand some key information for teachers of students with another language background.
Key information for teachers about "language families" and "language distance" from English
Enablers: Teacher knowledge about the relationship between first language and English helps determine level of support likely.
Understanding the impact on first generation immigrants and former refugees.
Enablers: Fully understanding the many impacts will help develop empathy for the challenges that students | families may exhibit.
Concept and knowledge gaps, and cognitive frustration
Enablers: Give family information on topics coming up in class, to enable some content "preloading" in the first language. Or let them know what has been taught. If this is challenging time-wise, then weekly may suffice.
Use digital access to text (so can be slowed down, repeated or translated)
What teachers might notice:
What teachers might notice:
Switch of the dominant language
As a student moves throughout schooling there is often a switch in dominance from their first language, to the language of the community e.g. in New Zealand this is English (their second language).
Ultimately, many heritage speakers become dominant in the language of the community with a high degree of variability in spoken proficiency and literacy in the home language.
Cognitive overloading
When learning a second language there can be a dip in the ability in the first language. this might be seen at school, where the brain has to engage more fully in the learning of the second language and resources are pulled across to that second language.
"If both languages are active, then the more dominant language would have to be suppressed to enable speech planning in the less dominant language."
Code-switching
Students may use both languages within one sentence or utterance.
A helpful video on code-switching can be found here: https://vimeo.com/403470173
Explicit teaching is crucial for diverse language learners
Explicit teaching is crucial for diverse language learners
Prof Pamela Snow reminds is that when learning our first (spoken/oral) language, the "rules" of that language are largely implicitly learnt.
When learning a second language, language rules need to be explicitly taught.
Reading and writing in English is less transparent than many other languages (such as Te reo and Samoan for example where, predominantly, what you see is what you say)
English on the other hand:
has "collected" many words from other languages - it is "one of the most complex writing systems in the world"
does follow some rules
in written form is more formal - is it more "correct" unlike spoken language with its hesitancies, incomplete thoughts
can have a higher level of vocabulary and concepts and syntax (which can be cognitively overloading)
contains punctuation to help comprehension
has spelling and grammar that can change meanings
has pronunciations over time that have continued to change the language (and can differ even in other English speaking countries (Australia and NZ differences in vowel pronunciations for example)
requires a non-negotiable skill of decoding; at the simple and more complex levels, decoding is essential to comprehension.
What Diverse language learners need #1
What Diverse language learners need #1
Breanna Guzman,(Unbound2024conference Enhancing Literacy Teaching and Learning for Linguistically Diverse Students )
Teachers to have a strengths focus
It is possible to learn two languages simultaneously.
Learning English is not an intervention, it is an opportunity for bilingualism.
- apply the same narrative we have when English-users are learning German or Japanese!
English Language learners have a valuable first language knowledge base and resource that is to be seen as an advantage when learning English. Leverage the home language!
What Diverse language learners need #2
What Diverse language learners need #2
Considerations when teaching diverse language learners structured literacy
Take note of the extra cognitive load required when learning a new sound system and word meanings as well as how to decode. (refer to Dr Jannie Hees video above)
learning needs to be made meaningful - not just a rote segmenting and blending exercise - extra time needed to make sure we know which sounds are likely to be new for students and what word meanings they may need to be explicitly taught (even for simple words d-o-g).
extra time for practice, modelling sounds in mirrors etc.
What Diverse language learners need #3
What Diverse language learners need #3
When setting up conversations - have a specific goal in mind - e.g. to understand content, or create sentences that compare and contrast, or understand and use the key vocabulary in sentences; - this means you will know where the cognitive load is and provides a focus for specific feedback (and avoid too much feedback which increases cognitive load). .
Commonly used activities such as "read alouds", or simple repeating of key vocab or grammar exercises do not promote the language use required; what is needed is conversational level work.
conversations peer to peer (can be same level peer or tukaana-teina)
conversations with teachers (adult)
What Diverse language learners need #4
What Diverse language learners need #4
Where to start:
Look at language proficiency levels in English (ESL data).
Look at reading and writing/spelling assessment (including Phonemic Awareness).
determine where students are on the scope and sequence you are using.
Group according to skills based on where they are, using the SL teaching practices.
use your knowledge of English code to make the "cross-linguistic transfer" to the first language.
Use Generative AI tools to ask "what are the sounds that are the same in English and XXX" some will be the same -there is immediate cross linguistic transfer).
if any older students still struggle with basic decoding - then they will need Tier 2 or 3 instruction.
He Awa Whiria and early literacy: research project in Christchurch, Aotearoa NZ.
Information from: He Awa Whiria: Braiding the knowledge streams in research (2024) -Chapter 3.
The researchers on this project noted: "Our research explored early literacy development with bilingual four year-old children attending a dual-language (te reo Māori and English) early childhood centre in Christchurch, New Zealand. Our study focused specifically on two key cognitive skills, which are widely recognised as playing a critical role in children’s emerging literacy. The first skill was phonological awareness, which can be broadly defined as an awareness of the sound structure of spoken words. The second skill was vocabulary knowledge, which refers to children’s ability to understand the meaning of words.
"Our use of the He Awa Whiria approach in our study created a culturally responsive, home-based literacy intervention that drew from both Māori and Western streams of knowledge to foster children’s early literacy skills."
See more about He Awa Whiria (braided rivers) approach on Home page (click on the blue button).
Literacy intervention practices used according to a He Awa Whiria approach :
Literacy intervention practices used according to a He Awa Whiria approach :
The Māori stream (braid) includes practices associated with Māori oral traditions, the history of Māori literacy, and traditional pedagogical approaches. More specifically, this includes:
storytelling and songs as teaching and learning tools,
reminiscing about the past to retain rich whānau history,
and positioning whānau as first teachers of their children.
The Western stream (braid) includes:
research on the role of phonological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in children’s early literacy development,
as well as the influence of the home-literacy environment and family literacy practices.
Effective strategies for teaching English language learners.
Effective strategies for teaching English language learners.
https://www.umassglobal.edu/news-and-events/blog/innovative-strategies-for-english-language-learners
Dr. Nicole Schneider, associate professor at the University of Massachusetts Global.
1. Focus on academic language, literacy and vocabulary
1. Focus on academic language, literacy and vocabulary
Dr. Schneider emphasizes the importance of teaching students how to talk about what they know. This is called “academic language,” and while some learners adopt this naturally over time, many students — native English speakers included — need reinforcement to develop this skill.
Teach content AND provide language scaffolding:
use semi-structured small group discussions
add visuals to a lesson
have students keep a journal and providing instruction in their native language
2. Link background knowledge and culture to learning
2. Link background knowledge and culture to learning
Become familiar with your students’ backgrounds
Use examples that connect to their lives
Represent students’ cultures with art, music and literature
Encourage students to tell stories in a variety of mediums: drawing, poetry, visual art, drama, essays, etc.
Ask students to speak and write about their lives regularly in casual, low-stress ways without forcing them to share
Allow students to use their native language and/or translation apps
3. Increase comprehensible input and language output
3. Increase comprehensible input and language output
Strategies for input include:
Read out loud or play audio versions of texts
Front load vocabulary and key concepts before reading
Provide a similar text in the student’s first language
Go beyond the textbook and include artwork, videos, guest speakers, stories
Slow down your speech
Use graphs and visuals when presenting
Give students an outline of the information
Use closed captioning for videos
10/2 rule: For every 10 minutes of lecture, stop for 2 minutes of student engagement
Strategies for output (talking about learning) include:
Provide multiple opportunities for structured and unstructured talk
Opportunities for students to collaborate with each other
Include open-ended questions in your lessons
Provide daily low-stakes writing opportunities in all content areas
4. Promote classroom interaction
4. Promote classroom interaction
Model question prompts, such as:
Can you tell me more about …?
Let me see if I understand you …
Following up on ___’s idea …
Provide opportunities for more structured classroom interactions with a clear purpose and goal.
Think-pair-share
Carousel or gallery walk
Book clubs
Student interviews
Pick a Side:
What do you think/believe about…? Why?
How would you convince someone to…?
5. Stimulate higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) and use of learning strategies.
5. Stimulate higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) and use of learning strategies.
Teachers can encourage the development of HOTS in their students by modelling and providing language scaffolding such as:
What do you observe?
“In this picture, I notice …”
“I noticed that, too, and I want to add …
ESOL Principles and Aligned Teaching Strategies Table
ESOL Principles and Aligned Teaching Strategies Table
This handy table has been developed by Ashley Rance - RTLB from Cluster 28 in 2025. (used with permission)
Acknowledgement: This document has been collated from resources from ‘TKI ESOL Online’, specifically the ESOL Principles section, to support easy and efficient access for RTLB and kaiako.
Purpose: This document is intended to support kaiako and RTLB to identify effective teaching strategies to support English Language Learners (ELLs), categorised by principle and mode.
Implementation: It is recommended that one new strategy be introduced per fortnight for sustainable implementation.
Things to consider:
Supplementary Enrolment Form from ESOL Online (also linked on the Kohikohi page here
English Language Learning Progressions Pathway – Foundation to Stage 3 v2
This LINK here will ask you to make a copy.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKeIw_e34jA
Samoa’s Systematic Synthetic Phonics project.
Samoa’s Systematic Synthetic Phonics project.
Listen to Tuiloma Simanu, Samoan Ministry of Education, talking about the benefits of the Phonics programme for Samoa.
In the second video, listen to how a teacher describes her experience teaching using a systematic phonics scope and sequence. The programme has already resulted in much improved literacy achievement levels for students and increased confidence in teachers.
The Samoa Systematic Synthetics Phonics programme involves 10 pilot schools, 6 in Upolu and 4 in Savaii, and targeted students in Years 2, 3 and 4. The programme was designed through a collaboration between the Pacific Community, Samoa’s Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (MESC) and literacy experts from the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER), Educators International (EI) and experts from the region.
More about the project here:
Gagana Sāmoa | The Sāmoan language -Bilingual resources
Gagana Sāmoa | The Sāmoan language -Bilingual resources
There are plans for a phonics check in gagana Sāmoan (not available at time of writing April '25) .
This phonics check will be designed for immersion or bilingual settings (where the student is funded for being taught in gagana Sāmoan), however it would be useful for mainstream classes in order to assess the phonics knowledge they have in Sāmoan in order to use this build their phonics knowledge in English. It is hoped this will be freely available.
Resource for Dual language texts
Teacher support Material - Unpacking the books. (MOE 2017)
available as a PDF download on the ESOL Online website
Useful teacher materials.
p 20 Customs - useful background information for teachers on Sāmoan culture.
p 21 - using knowledge of te re Māori when using gagana Sāmoa.
p 24 - family letter (questionnaire) in English and in gagana Sāmoa to get some family information useful for teachers
pp 26/27 further resources
A note about Dual language texts:
A note about Dual language texts:
NB Currently, these are translations of Ready To Read books which are from a balanced literacy pedagogy based on high interest words not previously taught and on the (now not used) colour wheel. These rely heavily on a student using the picture to "guess" what is happening in the story.
In contrast, the more recently developed Phonics Plus texts are from a structured literacy pedagogy with controlled phonemes and then these are practised in the text. There is no "guessing" involved; students decode the text they see on the page.
Use of dual language texts for language and concept development
Use of dual language texts for language and concept development
As stated in the resource - these texts are useful to:
"build connections between what your child knows about gagana Sāmoa to help them to read in English. Many of the skills of reading in gagana Sāmoa can be transferred to reading in English. Dual language books give us a chance to build on all the language and reading experiences and skills that your child brings to school."
Many of these dual language books are available online as PDFs and audio files (MP3s) on Tāhūrangi -
all linked on this page
https://newzealandcurriculum.tahurangi.education.govt.nz/pacific-dual-language-books/5637179826.p
These are available in gagana Sāmoa, te gagana Tokelau, lea Faka-Tonga, te reo Māori Kūki ‘Āirani, and vagahau Niue.
App for gagana Sāmoa
App for gagana Sāmoa
LEARN AND SPEAK SĀMOAN Si'ufofoga 'o le Laumua Trust (Samoa Capital Radio) has launched the Gagana Sāmoa app. It aims to help grow, maintain and retain the Sāmoan language.
It is an easy-to-use tool to help people learn and speak the Sāmoan language. The app includes a function that allows you to swipe across a letter, word or sentence to hear the pronunciation and learn correctly.
The Gagana Sāmoa app has been developed for all learner levels. Whether you're starting your language learning journey or would like to learn more, the app can help.
Download the Gagana Sāmoa app on the Apple App Store or Google Play today!
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