Topic 15 - Postwar America (1945-1975)

Lesson 6 - Kennedy, Johnson, and Vietnam

The presidential election of 1960 pitted Republican Vice President Richard Nixon against John F. Kennedy, a Democrat and senator from Massachusetts. It was a close contest that went to Kennedy by a narrow margin.

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Start up

How does this photo of U.S. troops in Vietnam show the challenges of combat in the Vietnam War?

Guiding Questions

What were President Kennedy’s accomplishments?
What were President Johnson’s accomplishments?
Why and how did the United States become so deeply involved in the Vietnam War?

Vocabulary

Academic Vocabulary

A New President

Many Americans voted against John F. Kennedy because they felt he did not have enough experience to be President. Others worried about Kennedy’s religion, Catholicism. No Roman Catholic had ever been President. Many Americans feared that Kennedy might be more loyal to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church than to the country. Kennedy reassured voters that he believed in the separation of church and state.

Television Helps Kennedy Win

The Kennedy–Nixon race included the first televised presidential debates in history. They turned the tide for Kennedy.

It was a close race, with Nixon holding the advantage through much of the summer. But on the day of the first debate, Nixon was recovering from the flu, plus, he spent the day campaigning, while Kennedy holed up in a hotel and practiced for the debate. When the two men appeared on stage, Kennedy appeared youthful and confident, in contrast with Nixon, who looked tired and nervous.

As debaters, the two were evenly matched. Those who listened to the debate on the radio considered it a draw, or even gave the edge to Nixon. In contrast, the TV audience rated Kennedy as the clear winner. In November, in one of the closest elections since Reconstruction, Kennedy won the popular vote with a margin of less than 120,000.

Kennedy Inspires the Nation

John F. Kennedy took the presidential oath of office on January 20, 1961. At 43, he was the youngest man ever elected President and the first to be born in the twentieth century. “Let the word go forth,” he said, “that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans.”

John F. Kennedy was a youthful President who inspired people with his ideas and speaking.

Kennedy’s youth and idealism had inspired Americans during the campaign. Now he called them to service.

Primary Source

“The trumpet summons us again . . . to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle . . . against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself. . . . And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”

— John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961

For all his youth and high hopes, Kennedy and the presidents who followed him faced tough challenges. The 1960s and 1970s were years of idealism. They also turned out to be a time of uncertainty, tragedy, and turmoil for Americans of all ages.

READING CHECK

Identify Main Ideas What were the strengths and weaknesses of Kennedy and Nixon as presidential candidates?

Why Was Communist Cuba a Threat?

By the time Kennedy entered the White House, the United States and the Soviet Union had emerged as superpowers—nations with enough military, political, and economic strength to influence events worldwide. As leader of a superpower, President Kennedy was given the task of negotiating the country’s way through Cold War crises. In fact, the rivalry between the superpowers led to clashes in many places, including Cuba, an island in the Caribbean very close to the United States.

In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution that set up a Communist state in Cuba. Castro’s government took over private companies, including many owned by American businesses. Thousands of Cubans, especially those from the upper and middle classes, fled to the United States.

Analyze Images Fidel Castro was a revolutionary leader who turned Cuba into the first communist state in the western hemisphere.

Use Visual Information Based on this photograph, how would you describe Castro?

A Failed Invasion

The Soviet Union began supplying Cuba with large amounts of aid. The growing ties between the Soviet Union and Castro’s Cuba worried American officials. Cuba lies just 90 miles off the coast of Florida.

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy approved a plan to support Cuban exiles in an invasion of Cuba to overthrow Castro. Exiles are people who have been forced to leave their own country.

A force of about 1,400 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs on Cuba’s south coast. The invasion was badly planned. Castro’s forces outnumbered the invaders and quickly rounded them up and jailed them, killing about 100 of the invaders. The Bay of Pigs invasion strengthened Castro in Cuba and embarrassed the United States.

Impending Crisis

After the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Soviet Union gave Cuba more weapons. In October 1962, President Kennedy learned that the Soviets were secretly building missile bases on the island. If the bases were completed, nuclear missiles launched from them could reach American cities within minutes.

Kennedy responded cautiously to the Cuban missile crisis. He announced that American warships would be positioned around Cuba with orders to stop any Soviet ships carrying missiles. For the next six days the world waited tensely as Soviet ships traveling toward Cuba approached the American blockade. At the last minute, the Soviet ships turned back. “We’re eyeball to eyeball,” said Secretary of State Dean Rusk, “and I think the other fellow just blinked.”

Kennedy’s strong stand led the Soviets to compromise. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove Soviet missiles from Cuba. In turn, the United States promised not to invade the island. Still, the crisis had shaken both American and Soviet officials. In all the years of the Cold War, the world had never come closer to a full-scale nuclear war.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

This map shows the locations of the missile bases and how close they were to the United States.

Location What does this map tell you about why President Kennedy was willing to risk war to prevent missiles from arriving in Cuba?
Analyze Information What is the meaning of the dotted blue line on the map, and what was its importance?

READING CHECK

Identify Main Ideas What was the American government trying to accomplish with the Bay of Pigs invasion?

Reform and Progress

In the early 1900s, the United States had frequently intervened in the internal affairs of Latin American nations. Now, Cold War tensions led the United States under President Kennedy to resume its active role. Successive Presidents also tried to contain communism in Latin America.

Communism in Latin America

Because of its colonial past, Latin America had long faced severe social and economic problems. A huge gap existed between the wealthy few and the majority of people. In most of Latin America, rural people lived in desperate poverty. When the poor migrated to cities seeking work, they were often forced to live in shacks without heat, light, or water.

Many poor Latin Americans saw communism as a solution to their problems. Communists called for land to be distributed to the poor and for governments to take over foreign corporations. Some non-Communists also supported these policies.

Kennedy Attempts Reform

Many American leaders agreed with the need for reform in Latin America. They hoped that U.S. aid would help make Latin American nations more democratic, ease the lives of the people, and lessen Communist influence.

In 1961, President Kennedy created an ambitious aid program called the Alliance for Progress. He urged Latin American countries to make reforms to improve the lives of their people. In return, the United States contributed aid to build schools and hospitals and to improve farming and sanitation services. The Alliance brought a few improvements, but it did not end the causes of poverty.

Kennedy also set up the Peace Corps. Under this program, American volunteers worked in developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and Africa as teachers, engineers, and technical advisers. Volunteers lived with local people for two years, teaching or giving technical advice.

The United States was also a leading member of the Organization of American States, or OAS. Through the OAS, the United States promoted economic progress in the Americas by investing in transportation and industry.

To battle communism, the United States gave military aid to train and arm Latin American military forces. The United States spoke up for democracy and pressed governments to make reforms. Often, though, the United States ended up supporting military dictators because they opposed communism.

Analyze Images The Peace Corps sent volunteers to teach at this school in the Philippines.

Understand Effects How did the Peace Corps promote America’s influence in the world?

Kennedy Faces Challenges

When Kennedy took office, he was handed the task of leading a country through the Cold War. In doing so, Kennedy took a hard line on many issues, responding directly to Soviet aggression in Cuba and Berlin. These actions were risky, but in both instances, the Soviet Union backed off. Still, the American people remained worried about the possibility of nuclear war.

Both the Soviet Union and the United States had developed large stocks of nuclear bombs and missiles. In fact, they had enough bombs to destroy civilization. When, in 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I, the world’s first artificial satellite, Americans questioned whether Soviet rockets armed with atomic weapons could reach the United States.

As both superpowers raced to send larger satellites farther into space, the United States under President Kennedy’s leadership set up NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Its mission was to direct an American space program to compete with that of the Soviets.

Many programs that began with the Kennedy administration are part of his legacytoday. For example, NASA continues research today, sending more and more satellites into space and bettering Americans’ lives with its technology. The Peace Corps works around the world, continuing to provide support to people in developing nations.

Analyze Charts The U.S. space program inspired millions of people in the United States and around the world during the 1960s and 1970s.

Draw Conclusions What do the charts and graphs tell you about the United States’ strategy for developing the space program? Explain.

READING CHECK

Identify Supporting Details What are some aid programs established under President Kennedy’s administration?

What Was Johnson’s Great Society?

Nearly two years into his term, President Kennedy had achieved much, but he still had work to do. However, he never got a chance to continue it. Kennedy’s life was cut short by an assassin.

The Kennedy Assassination

On November 22, 1963, Kennedy traveled to Dallas, Texas. As his convertible passed cheering crowds, shots rang out, and the President slumped in his seat. Later, John F. Kennedy died, and Vice President Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as President.

Stunned Americans reacted with grief and confusion, but more drama followed. Police caught Lee Harvey Oswald, the suspected gunman. However, after his arrest, Oswald himself was killed by another gunman.

Later a special government commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that a lone gunman, Oswald, had murdered the President. Today, most historians agree with the conclusions of the Warren Commission.

President Johnson Carries On

“Let us continue,” said Johnson. He steered many of Kennedy’s proposals through Congress. In November 1964, voters returned Johnson to the White House in a landslide victory. Johnson had his own program. He called it the Great Society. It boldly aimed to create a decent living standard for every American. In a first step, Johnson declared a “war on poverty.”

Congress had not supported Kennedy’s poverty program. However, Johnson was more persuasive. Using his years of political experience, he pressured members of Congress individually and personally. In just two years, Johnson pushed 50 new laws through Congress.

Analyze Political Cartoons In this cartoon, President Johnson holds a firearm labeled “domestic policy” and a water pistol labeled “foreign policy.”

Identify Main Ideas What does the cartoon suggest about how Johnson exercised his powers?

Johnson’s Plan

The Great Society had many programs. Under Medicare, the government helped pay hospital costs for senior citizens. Medicaid gave states money to help poor citizens with medical bills. A new Office of Economic Opportunity created job-training programs for the unemployed. It gave loans to needy farmers and to businesses in poor sections of cities.

Programs to build housing for low-income and middle-income families were also part of the Great Society. To carry out these programs, Congress established the Department of Housing and Urban Development, or HUD. Robert Weaver headed the department. He was the first African American ever appointed to the Cabinet.

The Great Society had mixed success. It aided the poor but at great cost to taxpayers. Government grew in size, and corruption sometimes plagued antipoverty programs. Still, Medicare, Medicaid, and other reforms helped millions and continue to do so today.

READING CHECK

Summarize President Johnson’s Great Society.

War in Vietnam

Vietnam is a narrow country in Southeast Asia that stretches about 1,000 miles along the South China Sea. Starting in the 1950s, the United States gradually became deeply involved in a conflict there.

Since the late 1800s, France had ruled Vietnam as a colony. During the 1940s, Ho Chi Minh (hoh chee min), a Vietnamese nationalist and a Communist, had led the fight for independence. Ho’s army finally defeated the French in 1954.

An international peace conference divided Vietnam into two countries. Ho Chi Minh led Communist North Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem (noh din dyem) was the leader of non-Communist South Vietnam. In the Cold War world, the Soviet Union supported North Vietnam, and the United States backed Diem in the south.

The Vietcong

Diem quickly lost popular support. Many South Vietnamese thought that he favored wealthy landlords and was corrupt. He failed to help the nation’s peasant majority and ruled with a heavy hand.

As discontent grew, many peasants joined the Vietcong—guerrillas who opposed Diem. Guerrillas (guh RIL uz) are fighters who make hit-and-run attacks on the enemy. They do not wear uniforms or fight in large battles. In time, the Vietcong became Communist and were supported by North Vietnam. Vietcong influence quickly spread, especially in the villages.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

This map shows the location of the Vietnam War, political divisions, and the sites of some important events.

Movement Most of the Ho Chi Minh Trail is not in Vietnam. How would traveling outside of Vietnam benefit the Vietcong?

Compare and Contrast Recall information you learned about the Korean War. What similarities to the Korean War do you notice on this map?

The Domino Theory

Vietcong successes worried American leaders. If South Vietnam fell to communism, they believed, other countries in the region would follow—like a row of falling dominoes. This idea became known as the domino theory. The United States decided that it must keep South Vietnam from becoming the first domino.

Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy sent military advisers to help train the South Vietnamese army. Meanwhile, Diem continued to lose support. In November 1963, Diem was assassinated.

Just a few weeks later, President Kennedy was assassinated. The new U.S. President, Lyndon Johnson, was also determined to keep South Vietnam from falling to the Communists. He increased aid to South Vietnam, sending more arms and advisers. Still, the Vietcong continued to make gains.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

In August 1964, President Johnson announced that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had attacked an American ship patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of North Vietnam. At Johnson’s urging, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. It allowed the President “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack or to prevent further aggression.” Johnson used the resolution to order the bombing of North Vietnam and Vietcong-held areas in the south.

With the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, the role of Americans in Vietnam changed from military advisers to active fighters. The war in Vietnam escalated, or expanded. By 1968, President Johnson had sent more than 500,000 troops to fight in Vietnam.

Guerilla Warfare

The Vietnam War differed from other wars that Americans had fought. Rather than trying to gain ground, Americans attempted to destroy enemy positions. However, the Vietcong were hard to pin down. When Americans found an enemy stronghold, the guerrillas disappeared into the jungle. When the Americans left, the Vietcong returned. As a result, Americans found themselves going back again and again to fight in the same areas.

Worse still, American soldiers often could not tell which villagers were Vietcong. “The farmer you waved to from your jeep in the day,” explained an American soldier, “would be the guy with the gun out looking for you at night.”

Analyze Images Nurses assist wounded soldiers before they are airlifted from Tan Son Nhat airbase near Saigon, 1967.

Synthesize Visual Information Do you think this photograph gives a fair, accurate picture of military nurses in the Vietnam War? Explain.

The Tet Offensive

In January 1968, the Vietcong launched numerous surprise attacks on cities throughout South Vietnam. Guerrillas even stormed the American embassy in Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam. The attack became known as the Tet Offensive because it took place during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year’s holiday.

In the end, American and South Vietnamese forces pushed back the enemy. Still, the Vietcong had won a major political victory. The Tet Offensive showed that even with half a million U.S. troops, after years of fighting and thousands of American deaths, South Vietnam was no closer to victory. Many Americans began to protest the war.

Hoping to restore calm to a nation rocked by protests, a weary President Johnson announced that he would not seek re-election in 1968. He said that he needed to focus on his official duties rather than on campaigning. He was also concerned about his health.

Analyzing Charts These data support the idea that the Vietnam War was one of the longest and hardest fought wars in U.S. history.

Draw Conclusions During what years do you think the fighting was the most intense? Why?

READING CHECK

Summarize What was the domino theory, and how was it applied in Vietnam?

What Caused Protests at Home?

Protest movements grew in the 1960s. The civil rights movement expanded. Some young people began to openly reject the values and lifestyles of their parents. Opposition to the war in Vietnam grew.

Protesting War

As American casualties mounted, public support for the war faded. For the first time, Americans watched a war on television. They saw villages burned, children and the elderly caught in battle, and soldiers wounded and killed.

To build up troops, the United States expanded the draft, the system of mandatory enlistment into the armed forces. The draft affected American youth unequally. Many young upper-class and middle-class men found ways to avoid the draft, such as by attending college. As a result, many of the draftees sent to Vietnam were poor. A large number were African American and Latino.

As more and more young men were sent to fight in the Vietnam War, an antiwar movement gained strength. Protesters staged rallies, burned draft cards (notices that a person has been drafted), and refused to serve in the military. Many of the largest demonstrations took place on college campuses.

By the mid-1960s, the country split between “hawks” and “doves.” Hawks supported the Vietnam War as a battle against communism. Doves opposed it. They saw it as a civil war that concerned the Vietnamese only.

Protesters also charged that American lives and money were being wasted on an unjust war. The South Vietnamese government, they said, was corrupt and brutal, and the United States should not support it. They wanted the huge sums being spent on the war to be spent on social programs at home.

Analyze Images Americans assembled in large numbers to protest their country’s involvement in Vietnam.

Compare and Contrast What similarities to the Civil Rights Movement that was going on at the same time do you see in this protest?

This poster announced the counterculture event known today as Woodstock.

A Counterculture Emerges

The antiwar protests fed a spirit of rebellion among young people. During the 1960s and early 1970s, many young people rejected traditional American values. Many young Americans joined the counterculture movement. They criticized competition and the drive for personal success. Instead of going to college, they “dropped out.” Instead of traditional families, they lived together in groups or communes. Many listened to new forms of rock music. Some “turned on,” or experimented with illegal drugs.

Inspired by the civil rights movement, counterculture protesters called for peace, justice, and social equality. They wore torn, faded jeans and work shirts to blur the differences between rich and poor. Men grew long hair and beards. Women refused to put on makeup. All wanted to look and to be more natural and less like their parents.

Like the beatniks of the 1950s, members of the counterculture said American life was empty and materialistic. Some turned to eastern religions such as Buddhism in search of spiritual meaning.

READING CHECK

Compare and Contrast How did the hawks and the doves differ?

Lesson Check

What caused the Cuban missile crisis and how did it end?
How did the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution escalate the Vietnam War?
What was the counterculture movement?
Identify Main Ideas How did the Vietnam War differ from prior wars?
Compare and Contrast How were the policies of President Kennedy and President Johnson similar and different?
Writing Workshop: Draft Your Essay Begin writing your essay on changes to the United States after World War II. Use the details you have been gathering to develop your ideas.

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