Topic 12 - Imperialism and World War I (1853-1919)

Lesson 3 - US Power in Latin America

When Theodore Roosevelt became President in 1901, he was determined to build a canal through Panama in Central America. Roosevelt knew that a canal would greatly benefit American commerce and military capability. By avoiding the long trip around South America, ships could shorten the journey from New York City to San Francisco by nearly 8,000 miles.

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Start up

Examine this scene of the construction of the Panama Canal. What challenges do you think the builders of the canal would have had to overcome? Write three or four ideas.

Guiding Questions

Why and how did the United States build the Panama Canal?
What was Theodore Roosevelt’s “big stick” policy in Latin America?
How did the crisis between the United States and Mexico develop and how did it end?

Vocabulary

isthmus
Roosevelt Corollary
dollar diplomacy
moral diplomacy

Academic Vocabulary

suppress
previous

Taking Land for the Panama Canal

Roosevelt wanted a canal to reduce the cost of shipping goods between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. In addition, in the event of a war, a canal would enable the navy to quickly move ships back and forth between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. As President, Roosevelt took on the job of seeing that the canal was built.

Roosevelt Makes an Offer

A unique geographical feature, the Isthmus of Panama, provided an ideal location to build a canal.

An isthmus is a narrow strip of land, with water on each side, that connects two larger bodies of land. At the canal site, only 50 miles of land separated the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.

To build the canal, Roosevelt had to deal with Colombia, which owned the isthmus. Roosevelt asked Secretary of State John Hay to approach Colombia. Hay offered $10 million cash plus $250,000 a year to rent a strip of land across Panama.

Taking the Canal Zone

When Colombia rejected Roosevelt’s offer, he was furious. “I do not think the [Colombian] lot of jack rabbits should be allowed permanently to bar one of the future highways of civilization,” he exclaimed.

At times like this, Roosevelt was fond of quoting an African proverb: “Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far.” He meant that words should be supported by strong action. Roosevelt knew that some Panamanians wanted to break away from Colombia. He made it known that he would not help Colombia suppress the rebels. In fact, he might even support the rebellion.

On November 2, 1903, the American warship Nashville dropped anchor in the port of Colón, Panama. The next day, Panamanians rebelled against Colombia.

American forces stopped Colombian troops from crushing the revolt. Panama then declared itself an independent republic. The United States recognized the new nation at once. Panama in turn agreed to let the United States build a canal on terms similar to those Hay had offered to Colombia.

Roosevelt’s action in Panama angered many Latin Americans. It also upset some members of Congress. The President, however, proudly stated, “I took the Canal Zone and let Congress debate.”

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

The Panama Canal was cut through the Isthmus of Panama, a narrow strip of land separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Pacific Ocean.

Movement In which direction did ships travel to get from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean?
Use Visual Information What natural feature did the engineers take advantage of as they built the canal?

READING CHECK

Identify Cause and Effect Why did Roosevelt get involved in the Panamanian rebellion against Colombia?

Challenges With Construction

Roosevelt now had the right to build his canal. However, before work could begin, Americans had to conquer a deadly enemy: disease.

Preventing Tropical Disease

With its tropical heat, heavy rainfall, and plentiful swamps, Panama was a “mosquito’s paradise.” This presented serious difficulties for the canal builders. Mosquitoes carry two of the deadliest tropical diseases: malaria and yellow fever.

Dr. William Gorgas, an army physician, arrived in Panama in 1905 to help control the mosquitoes and the spread of disease. He ordered workers to locate all pools of water where mosquitoes laid their eggs. Day after day, the workers drained swamps, sprayed tons of insecticide, and spread oil on stagnant water to kill mosquito eggs.

By 1906, Gorgas had won his battle. Yellow fever disappeared from Panama, and malaria cases dropped dramatically. Work on the Panama Canal could proceed.

Difficult Work

Under the supervision of army engineer Colonel George Goethals, more than 40,000 workers struggled for over six years to dig the canal route. Most were blacks from the West Indies. They blasted a path through mountains and carved out what became the largest artificial lake in the world at that time. In all, they removed more than 200 million cubic yards of earth.

Then, they built gigantic locks to raise and lower ships as they passed through the canal. Finally, in 1914, the first ocean-going steamship traveled through the Panama Canal.

The new waterway helped the trade of many nations. American merchants and manufacturers benefited most. They could now ship goods cheaply to South America and Asia. However, many Latin American nations remained bitter about the way in which the United States had gained control of Panama.

READING CHECK

Identify Supporting Details What challenges did the canal builders have to overcome?

U.S. Intervention in Latin America

The Panama Canal involved the United States more than ever in Latin America. Gradually, President Roosevelt and succeeding Presidents established a policy of intervening in Latin America—especially when disturbances threatened American lives, property, and interests.

Analyze Political Cartoons

This 1904 cartoon shows President Roosevelt aggressively swinging his “Big Stick.”

Analyze Information How might the “Big Stick” in the cartoon relate to the Roosevelt Corollary?

Extending the Monroe Doctrine

In 1902, several European countries sent warships to force Venezuela to repay its debts. The United States did not want Europeans to interfere in Latin America. President Roosevelt decided that the United States must step in to keep Europeans out. He declared:

Primary Source

“If we intend to say ‘Hands off’ to the powers of Europe, then sooner or later we must keep order ourselves.”

—Theodore Roosevelt, quoted in Brands, T. R.: The Last Romantic

In 1904, Roosevelt announced an extension of the Monroe Doctrine. This extension came to be called the Roosevelt Corollary. A corollary is an immediate, natural result. The Roosevelt Corollary claimed that the United States had a right to intervene in Latin America to preserve law and order.

By using what he called “international police power,” the United States would force Latin Americans to pay their debts to European nations. It would also keep those nations from meddling in Latin American affairs. For the next 20 years, Presidents used the Roosevelt Corollary to justify U.S. intervention in Latin America.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

The map shows areas of Latin America where the United States chose to exercise its power to influence events.

Interaction Which of the areas shown on the map were governed directly by the United States?
Analyze Information Based on the map, when did American involvement in the affairs of these nations begin?

Dollar Diplomacy

Roosevelt’s successor, William Howard Taft, also favored a strong role in Latin America. However, he wanted to “substitute dollars for bullets.” He urged American bankers to invest in Latin America. Taft’s policy of building strong economic ties to Latin America became known as dollar diplomacy.

American investors responded eagerly. They helped build roads, railroads, and harbors in Latin America. These improvements increased trade, benefiting both the United States and local governments. The new railroads, for example, brought minerals and other resources to Latin American ports. From there, they were shipped all over the world.

Dollar diplomacy created problems, too. American businesses, such as the United Fruit Company, often meddled in the political affairs of host countries. Sometimes, the United States used military force to keep order and protect American-owned plantations, mines, and other business interests. In 1912, when a revolution erupted in Nicaragua, the United States sent in marines to protect American investments.

Moral Diplomacy

The next President, Woodrow Wilson, condemned the heavy-handed foreign policy of earlier Presidents. “The force of America,” he said, “is the force of moral principle.” The stated goals of Wilson’s moral diplomacy were to condemn imperialism, spread democracy, and promote peace. Nevertheless, Wilson ordered military intervention in Latin America more than any previous President. He sent marines to Haiti in 1915 and the Dominican Republic in 1916. American troops remained in Haiti until 1934.

Wilson declared that U.S. intervention had a moral purpose. Still, many Latin Americans denounced the United States for invading their countries and interfering in their internal affairs.

READING CHECK

Identify Main Ideas How did Taft’s dollar diplomacy differ from Wilson’s moral diplomacy?

U.S. Involvement in Mexico

Moral diplomacy faced its greatest test in Mexico. Porfirio Díaz, Mexico’s president from 1884 to 1911, welcomed American investment. By 1912, Americans had invested about $1 billion to develop mines, oil wells, railroads, and ranches. Yet, most Mexicans remained poor. They worked the land of a few wealthy families, receiving very little for their labor.

Mexican Revolution

Mexicans rebelled against Díaz in 1910. The new leader, Francisco Madero, promised democratic reform. Then, in 1913, Madero was himself overthrown and killed by General Victoriano Huerta (wehr tuh). As civil war raged, Wilson refused to recognize what he called Huerta’s “government of butchers.”

Wilson tried to stay neutral. He hoped that Mexico would develop a democratic government without American interference. As Huerta’s dictatorship grew more brutal, however, Wilson authorized the sale of arms to Huerta’s rival, Venustiano Carranza.

Analyze Images

In this 1911 photo, soldaderas, or women soldiers, train for their role in the Mexican Revolution.

Use Visual Information What does this image suggest about the importance to Mexicans of the Revolution?

The United States Intervenes

A minor incident led to American intervention. In 1914, Huerta’s troops arrested several American sailors. The sailors were quickly released and an apology issued. Still, Wilson ordered the United States Navy to occupy the Mexican port of Veracruz. Rallied by the American show of strength, Carranza’s forces drove Huerta from power. The United States troops withdrew.

Still, civil war continued in Mexico. Now, General Francisco “Pancho” Villa led a force in an attempt to overthrow President Carranza. The United States supported Carranza.

In January 1916, Villa’s soldiers removed 17 American citizens from a train in Mexico and shot them. In March, Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 18 Americans.

Villa hoped that his actions would weaken relations between the United States and the Carranza government in Mexico City. But the plan backfired.

The United States Invades

Wilson sent General John J. Pershing with several thousand troops into Mexico to capture Pancho Villa. When Mexico demanded that the troops be withdrawn, Wilson refused. Still, both Wilson and Carranza resisted calls for war. After 11 months, Wilson ordered Pershing to withdraw without capturing Villa. The United States had again shown its willingness to use force to protect its interests. The incident strained relations with Mexico.

As United States troops headed home from Mexico, many Americans realized that their nation’s role in world affairs had dramatically changed over the years. Now, the United States stationed troops and ships in both Asia and Latin America. American business interests spanned the globe. At the same time, an enormous war had begun in Europe in 1914. With its increased role in international affairs, the United States would find it impossible to stay out of the conflict.

Analyze Images

This photograph shows Mexican leader Pancho Villa (fifth from left) with his staff, in 1911.

Summarize Why did the U.S. Army pursue Villa?

READING CHECK

Summarize How did U.S. foreign policy toward Mexico change over the course of Wilson’s presidency?

Lesson Check

Why did the United States choose an isthmus for building the Panama Canal?
How was Roosevelt’s Corollary a result of the Monroe Doctrine?
Who established the policy of moral diplomacy and what were its goals?
Generate Explanations Do you approve of how the United States gained the right to build the Panama Canal? Explain.
Draw Conclusions Describe the advantages and disadvantages of dollar diplomacy.
Writing Workshop: Pick an Organizing Strategy How will you organize your essay on U.S. expansion and intervention? You might organize it in time order, from most important to least important events, or in some other manner. Write your strategy.

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