Topic 12 - Imperialism and World War I (1853-1919)

Lesson 2 - War and Empire

For many years, Americans had looked longingly at Cuba, a Spanish-ruled island just 90 miles off the coast of Florida. As early as 1823, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams had compared Cuba to a ripe apple. A storm, he said, might tear that apple “from its native tree”—the Spanish empire—and drop it into the hands of the United States.

By the 1890s, Spain’s once-vast empire in the Western Hemisphere had shrunk to two islands in the Caribbean: Cuba and Puerto Rico. Then, Cuban rebels created the storm that Adams had hoped for.

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Start up

Many people believed the USS Maine had been sunk in a Cuban harbor by Spain. How might the United States react to this news? Why?

Guiding Questions

How did tensions in Cuba lead Americans to call for war with Spain?
How did the United States win such a quick victory in the Spanish-American War?
How did the United States acquire and rule its empire?

Vocabulary

atrocity
yellow journalism
Spanish-American War
Platt Amendment
protectorate
Foraker Act

Academic Vocabulary

subsequently
ultimately

A Revolution in Cuba

In 1868, the Cuban people had rebelled against Spanish rule. The revolution was finally crushed after 10 years of fighting. Some of the revolutionaries fled to New York, where they kept up the battle for freedom. There, some gathered in the home of exiled Puerto Rican revolutionary Lola Rodríguez de Tió. A renowned poet, Rodríguez de Tió wrote patriotic poems in support of Puerto Rican and Cuban independence. Another Cuban exile, José Martí, worked day and night raising funds and giving speeches in support of Cuban independence. In his newspaper Patria, he told sympathetic Americans of the Cuban struggle for freedom.

“Free Cuba!”

In 1895, Martí returned to Cuba. With cries of Cuba Libre!—“Free Cuba!”—rebels launched a new fight against Spain. Martí was killed early in the fighting, but the rebels continued the fight and won control of much of Cuba.

The rebels burned sugar cane fields and sugar mills all over Cuba. They hoped that this would make the island unprofitable for Spain and persuade the Spanish to leave. The rebels killed workers who opposed them. They even blew up some passenger trains.

In response, Spain sent a new governor to Cuba, General Valeriano Weyler (way ee lair). Weyler used brutal tactics to crush the revolt. In a policy known as reconcentration, his men forced about half a million Cubans into detention camps so that they could not aid the rebels. At least 100,000 Cubans in reconcentration camps died from starvation and disease.

Analyze Images

This illustration shows Cuban rebels leading a charge against Spanish troops in the late 1890s.

Infer Why did José Martí return to Cuba in 1895?

Americans Are Divided

In the United States, people watched the revolt in nearby Cuba with concern. The United States had vital economic links to the island. Americans had invested about $50 million in Cuban sugar and rice plantations, railroads, tobacco, and iron mines. Trade with Cuba was worth about $100 million a year.

Opinion split over whether the United States should intervene in Cuba. Many business leaders opposed American involvement, arguing that it might hurt foreign trade.

Other Americans, however, sympathized with Cuban desires for freedom. They called on the government to take action. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts compared the Cuban rebels to the Patriots in the American Revolution:

Primary Source

“They have risen against oppression, compared to which the oppression which led us to rebel against England is as dust in the balance; and they feel that for this reason, if no other, they should have the sympathy of the people of the United States.”

—Henry Cabot Lodge, Record of the 54th Congress, 1896

Analyze Images

This photo shows a Cuban sugar plantation around 1910.

Generate Explanations Why might some Cubans have opposed the rebels?

READING CHECK

Identify Cause and Effect Why were Americans interested in Cuba?

How Did Americans Push for War?

The press whipped up American sympathies for the people of Cuba. Two New York newspapers—Joseph Pulitzer’s World and William Randolph Hearst’s Journal—competed to print the most grisly stories about Spanish atrocities, or wartime acts of cruelty and brutality. The publishers knew that war with Spain would boost sales of their newspapers.

Sensational News

To attract readers, Hearst and Pulitzer used yellow journalism, or reporting that relied on sensational stories and headlines. Often, these reports were biased or untrue. According to one story, a photographer bound for Cuba told Hearst that there was no war. “You supply the pictures,” Hearst supposedly replied. “I’ll supply the war.” News stories described events in Cuba in graphic and horrifying detail.

In response to the news reports, many Americans demanded that the President take action to help the Cubans. Yet despite growing pressure, President Cleveland wanted to avoid war with Spain. He called the war fever in the United States an “epidemic of insanity.” Stories in the press, he grumbled, were nonsense.

When William McKinley became President in 1897, he also tried to keep the country neutral. However, remaining neutral would soon become difficult.

The Battleship Maine

Early in 1898, fighting broke out in Havana, the Cuban capital. Acting promptly, President McKinley sent the battleship Maine to Havana to protect American citizens and property.

On the night of February 15, the Maine lay at anchor in Havana harbor. Just after the bugler played taps, a huge explosion ripped through the ship. The explosion killed at least 260 of the 350 American sailors and officers on board.

The yellow press pounced on the tragedy. “DESTRUCTION OF THE WARSHIP MAINE WAS THE WORK OF AN ENEMY,” screamed one New York newspaper. “THE WARSHIP MAINE SPLIT IN TWO BY AN ENEMY’S SECRET INFERNAL MACHINE?” blared the front page of another.

The real cause of the explosion remains a mystery. Most historians believe that a boiler blew up or that there was an accident in the ship’s ammunition hold. But Americans, urged on by Pulitzer and Hearst, clamored for war. “Remember the Maine!” they cried.

Still hoping to avoid war, McKinley tried to get Spain to talk with the Cuban rebels. In the end, however, he gave in to war fever. At 4 a.m. on April 25, 1898, McKinley signed a declaration of war against Spain.

Analyze Images

The New York World trumpeted the shocking news of the Maine’s destruction.

Distinguish Between Fact and Opinion In what way is the newspaper headline misleading?

READING CHECK

Identify Main Ideas How did newspapers generate support for the war, and why?

The Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War lasted only four months. The battlefront stretched from the nearby Caribbean to the distant Philippine Islands off the coast of Southeast Asia.

Capturing the Philippines

Two months before the war started, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt had begun making preparations for a possible war with Spain. Roosevelt realized that a conflict with Spain would be fought not only in the Caribbean but wherever Spanish sea power lay. The Philippine Islands, a Spanish colony and Spain’s main naval base in the Pacific, would be a major military objective.

Roosevelt believed it necessary to attack the Spanish in the Philippines as soon as war began. Subsequently, he wired secret orders to Commodore George Dewey, commander of the Pacific fleet:

Primary Source

“Secret and confidential. Order the squadron . . . to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands.”

—Theodore Roosevelt, Telegram, February 25, 1898

When war was declared, Dewey sailed to Manila, the main city of the Philippines. On April 30, 1898, his ships slipped into Manila harbor under cover of darkness. There, the Spanish fleet lay at anchor.

At dawn, Dewey told his flagship commander, Charles Gridley, “You may fire when you are ready, Gridley.” The Americans bombarded the surprised Spanish ships. By noon, the Spanish fleet had been destroyed.

By July, American ground troops had landed in the Philippines. As in Cuba, local people there had been fighting for independence from Spain for years. With the help of these Filipino rebels, led by Emilio Aguinaldo (ah gwee nahl doh), the American forces quickly captured Manila.

Analyze Images

This illustration shows the American navy defeating the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila.

Synthesize Visual Information How did naval war change between the U.S. Civil War and the Spanish-American War?

Victory in Cuba

Meanwhile, American troops had also landed in Cuba. The expedition was badly organized. Soldiers wore heavy woolen uniforms in the tropical heat, and they often had to eat spoiled food. Yet, most were eager for battle.

None was more eager than Theodore Roosevelt. When the war broke out, Roosevelt resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He then organized the First Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, later called the Rough Riders. The Rough Riders were a mixed crew, ranging from cowboys to college students and adventurers.

The Rough Riders joined regular troops in the most notable land battle of the war. During the fight for the key Cuban city of Santiago, Americans had to gain control of the San Juan Heights overlooking the city. Under withering fire, charging American forces took two strategic hills.

African American members of the 9th and 10th Cavalries, nicknamed Buffalo Soldiers, played a major role in the bloody victory. John J. Pershing, commander of the 10th Cavalry, later described how the troops united in what came to be called the Battle of San Juan Hill:

Primary Source

“White regiments, black regiments, regulars and Rough Riders, representing the young manhood of the North and South, fought shoulder to shoulder, unmindful of race or color, . . . mindful of their common duty as Americans.”

—John J. Pershing, quoted in MacAdam, The Life of General Pershing

Two days later, on July 3, the Americans destroyed the Spanish fleet in Santiago Bay. The Spanish army in Cuba surrendered. American troops then landed on Puerto Rico and claimed the island.

Analyze Images

This photo shows Theodore Roosevelt surrounded by his Rough Riders atop San Juan Hill.

Summarize How did the Americans win the Spanish-American War in Cuba?

Spanish Defeat

Spain was defeated. On August 12, Spain and the United States agreed to end the fighting. American battle losses were fairly light—379 killed. However, more than 5,000 Americans died of other causes, such as yellow fever, typhoid, and malaria.

John Hay, who was soon to become Secretary of State, summed up the outlook of many Americans: “It’s been a splendid little war.” A malaria-ridden veteran of the war had a different view: “I was lucky—I survived.”

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

The United States had hoped to avoid war, but when it came, the United States attacked the Spanish in Cuba and soon afterwards in Puerto Rico.

Location Why did the United States have an interest in Cuba based on its location?
Synthesize Visual Information How did the United States Navy approach Santiago Bay for its battle with the Spanish fleet?

READING CHECK

Summarize In what areas of the world was the Spanish-American War fought? Why did the war extend to so many regions?

The United States Becomes a Colonial Power

The United States and Spain signed a peace treaty in Paris in December 1898. The treaty ended Spain’s colonial rule in the Western Hemisphere. It granted Cuba its freedom and gave the United States two islands: Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and Guam in the Pacific. Finally, in return for $20 million, Spain handed over the Philippines to the United States.

Americans Debate Colonialism

Before the Senate approved the treaty, a great debate occurred. Many Americans objected to the treaty. They argued it violated American principles of democracy by turning the United States into a colonial power.

Expansionists favored the treaty. They claimed that the navy needed bases in the Caribbean and the Pacific. Besides, the Philippines and Puerto Rico opened new territory for American businesses. Also, many Americans agreed with President McKinley, who said that the United States would “uplift and civilize and Christianize [the Filipinos].” In fact, most Filipinos already were Christians.

Urged on by McKinley, in February 1899, the Senate narrowly ratified the treaty. At last, the United States possessed a true overseas empire.

An American Protectorate in Cuba

When the war with Spain began, the United States pledged to “leave the government and control of [Cuba] to its people.” That promise, however, was not kept. After the war, American soldiers remained in Cuba. Many in Congress believed that Cuba was not ready for independence. American business leaders feared that an independent Cuba might threaten their investments.

In the end, the United States let the Cuban people write their own constitution. However, Cuba had to accept the Platt Amendment. The Platt Amendment allowed the United States to intervene in Cuba and gave the United States control of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay. In effect, it made Cuba an American protectorate, a nation whose independence is limited by the control of a more powerful country.

The United States pulled its army out of Cuba in 1902. However, American soldiers would return to Cuba in 1906 and again in 1917.

Analyze Cartoons

This 1902 political cartoon illustrates independent Cuba’s attitude toward its new relationship with the United States.

Draw Conclusions According to the cartoon, what is Cuba’s response to the choices given it by the United States?

New Government in Puerto Rico

In Puerto Rico, the United States set up a new government under the Foraker Act of 1900. The Foraker Act gave Puerto Ricans only a limited say in their own affairs. In 1917, Puerto Ricans were made citizens of the United States. Americans set up schools, improved healthcare, and built roads on the island. Even so, many Puerto Ricans wanted to be free of foreign rule.

Filipinos Revolt

Filipino nationalists had begun fighting for independence long before the Spanish-American War. When the United States took over their land after the war, Filipinos felt betrayed. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, they now fought for freedom against a new imperial power: the United States.

Aguinaldo, who had fought beside the Americans against Spain, accused the United States of forgetting its beginnings. The United States, he said, was using military force to keep the Filipinos from attaining “the same rights that the American people proclaimed more than a century ago.”

The Philippine-American War was the first all-out Asian war in which the United States fought. It dragged on for years. At one point, about 60,000 American troops were fighting there. Ultimately, Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, and the war came to an end officially in 1902.

The Philippine-American War was longer and more costly than the Spanish-American War. More than 4,000 Americans died in the Philippines. Nearly 20,000 Filipino soldiers were killed. Another 200,000 civilians died from shelling, famine, and disease.

In 1902, the United States set up a government in the Philippines similar to the one in Puerto Rico. Filipinos, however, were not made American citizens because the United States planned to give them independence in the future. It was not until 1946, however, that the United States allowed Filipinos to govern themselves.

Analyze Images

Emilio Aguinaldo led Filipino nationalists in a war first against Spain and later against the United States.

Infer How do you think Aguinaldo is regarded by Filipinos today?

READING CHECK

Summarize How did the United States become a colonial power?

Lesson Check

What were the purpose and consequences of the Platt Amendment?
Why did newspapers engage in yellow journalism?
What was the effect of making Cuba an American protectorate?
Generate Explanations Explain how the rebellion in Cuba affected U.S. economic interests.
Identify Cause and Effect Explain how the United States got involved in the Spanish-American War.
Writing Workshop: Develop a Clear Thesis A thesis is a concise statement of the main idea of an essay. Write a thesis for your essay describing the expansion and intervention of the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.

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