Topic 12 - Imperialism and World War I (1853-1919)

Lesson 6 - Winning the War

For two years, the war in Europe was largely stalemated. As an example: From July to November 1916, over a million soldiers were killed in the Battle of the Somme. In those five months of fighting, the Allies advanced only five miles.

Both sides had trouble keeping troops in the field. An Italian soldier despaired:

Primary Source

“Do not think that this is war. This is not war. It is the ending of the world.”

—A wounded soldier, quoted in World War One: The Global Conflict that Defined a Century

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Start up

These soldiers are celebrating the end of the war. Write three specific questions you would like to ask these soldiers about their experiences in the war.

Guiding Questions

What setbacks did the Allies suffer in 1917 and 1918?
How did the American Expeditionary Forces help the Allies win the war?
What was the toll on human life during World War I?

Vocabulary

Academic Vocabulary

intense
prerequisite

Allied Setbacks

In 1917 and early 1918, as the United States was preparing for battle and starting to send troops to Europe, the Allies suffered major setbacks. One of those was the loss of a key partner.

Russia Withdraws From the War

In November 1917, a group known as the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. Led by Vladimir I. Lenin, the Bolsheviks staged a Communist revolution. Lenin embraced the ideas of Karl Marx, a German thinker of the 1800s. Marx had predicted that workers around the world would unite to overthrow the ruling class. After the workers revolted, they would do away with private property and set up a classless society.

Lenin opposed the war, arguing that it benefited only the ruling class. Once in power, he opened peace talks with Germany. In March 1918, Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ending Russia’s participation in the war. The treaty was harsh, requiring Russia to give up large amounts of land to Germany. Still, Lenin welcomed peace. With Russia out of the war, he could focus on the Communist revolution.

The Allies saw the treaty as a betrayal. Besides land, it gave Germany coal mines and other valuable resources. More important, with Russia out of the struggle, Germany now moved its armies away from the Russian, or eastern, front to support its armies in France.

Analyze Images

The German army overwhelmed Belgium. This image shows German troops occupying Brussels’ central square.

Summarize How did the Germans plan to win the war?

The German Offensive

In early 1918, the Germans mobilized their troops for what they called a “peace offensive”—an all-out attack on the Allies. They hoped that a final push would end the war before the Americans could rescue the Allies.

By March 21, dozens of German divisions had massed near the French town of Amiens. Late at night, 6,000 German cannons began pounding a small British force. Despite the heavy fire, the British held on for two weeks. At last, on April 4, the Germans gave up their attack.

The Germans continued their offensive elsewhere. By late May, they had smashed through Allied lines along the Aisne (ehn) River.

On May 30, they reached the Marne River near Château-Thierry (shatoh tee er ee). Paris lay only 50 miles away. As France prepared to evacuate the capital, American troops entered the war in force.

READING CHECK

Identify Supporting Details How did Russia’s withdrawal from the war affect the Allies?

American Soldiers Arrive in Europe

By June 1918, American troops were reaching France in large numbers. More than one million American troops would arrive. Commanding the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was General John J. Pershing. Pershing was already well known at home. He had led American troops into Mexico in 1916 to hunt for Mexican rebel leader Francisco “Pancho” Villa.

Allied generals wanted the fresh troops to reinforce their own war-weary soldiers. Pershing refused. He insisted that American troops operate as separate units. The United States wanted to have an independent role in shaping the peace. Only by playing “a definite and distinct part” in the war would it win power at the peace table.

In the end, Pershing agreed to let some Americans fight with the British and French. At the same time, he set up an American operation to fight on its own.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

This map shows major battles that American forces participated in and how the front lines shifted between July and November 1918.

Location Based on the position of the Allied front lines, summarize Germany’s position in the war as of July 1918.
Draw Conclusions How did the entry of American forces into the war, change the momentum of the fighting? How do you know?

African American Soldiers

Among the first American units attached to the French Army was the 369th United States Infantry. This African American unit became known as the Harlem Hellfighters. Although the United States allowed few African Americans to train for combat, the French respected the bravery of African American soldiers and were glad to fight side by side with them.

The Harlem Hellfighters spent more time under fire than any other American unit. For their bravery, the French awarded them the Croix de Guerre, their highest military honor, and numerous other decorations.

After the war, New Yorkers greeted the returning Hellfighters with a huge parade. “God bless you, boys!” they cheered. The unit commander felt a rush of joy. “They did not welcome us [as] a regiment of colored soldiers,” he said, but as “a regiment of men who had done the work of men.”

Analyze Images

The African American soldiers known as Harlem Hellfighters served with distinction in the French army.

Infer How do you think African American soldiers felt upon their return to the United States?

Battle of Belleau Wood

In June 1918, American troops plunged into their first major battle in Belleau (beh loh) Wood, outside Paris. A French general sent U.S. General James Harbord instructions: “Have your men prepare entrenchments some hundreds of yards to the rear in case of need.” Harbord sent back a firm reply: “We dig no trenches to fall back on. The marines will hold where they stand.”

During the three-week-long Battle of Belleau Wood, the inexperienced but combat-ready Americans performed bravely. Expert marksmen hit their targets from hundreds of yards away. Individual soldiers charged German machine gun nests. When one man fell, another stepped in promptly to take his place. The Americans suffered great casualties. But at last, on June 25, they emerged victorious from the woods. General Harbord passed along the good news: “Wood now exclusively U.S. Marine Corps.”

READING CHECK

Summarize Why did the American Expeditionary Forces remain separate from other Allied forces?

Victory for the Allies

In mid-July, the Germans launched another drive to take Paris. They pushed the Allies back until they came up against American troops. Within three days, the Allies, with American help, had forced the Germans to retreat.

The Final Offensive

The Allies now struck back. French Marshal Ferdinand Foch (FOHSH), commander of the Allied forces, ordered “Everyone to battle!” On September 26, 1918, more than one million American soldiers began the assault that would become theBattle of the Argonne Forest. Years of fierce fighting had left the land scarred with trenches and shell holes, and the air still smelled of poison gas.

At first, the Americans advanced despite intense German fire. Then, rains and the thick woods slowed their progress. Small units drove forward to capture deadly German positions. Armed with a single rifle, Sergeant Alvin York of Tennessee wiped out a nest of German machine gunners. His brave act helped clear the way for advancing American troops. York became the most decorated American soldier of the war.

Finally, after 47 days, the Americans broke through the German defense. However, the cost was high. Americans had suffered more than 100,000 casualties in the battle.

British, French, and Belgian forces also smashed through the German lines in their areas. By November, German forces were in retreat. After more than four years of fighting, the Great War was finally nearing its end.

Armistice

In September, German generals told the kaiser that the war could not be won. On October 4, Prince Max of Baden, head of the German cabinet, secretly cabled President Wilson.

Primary Source

“To avoid further bloodshed, the German government requests the President to arrange the immediate conclusion of an armistice on land, by sea, and in the air.”

—Max, Prince of Baden, Cable, October 4, 1918

An armistice is an agreement to stop fighting. President Wilson set two prerequisites for an armistice. First, Germany must accept his plan for peace. Second, the German emperor must abdicate, or give up power.

While German leaders debated a response, rebellion simmered in the ranks. Daily, the German army lost ground. Morale plunged among the troops. German sailors mutinied. People in several German cities threatened to revolt.

On November 9, the kaiser fled to Holland, and Germany became a republic. The new German leaders agreed to the armistice terms. At 11 a.m. on November 11, 1918—the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month—World War I ended at last.

Analyze Images

A combination of two photographs shows the size of this Philadelphia celebration of the armistice, November 8, 1918.

Infer What sort of peace terms do you predict the Allies will demand?

READING CHECK

Identify Cause and Effect How did the Battle of the Argonne Forest contribute to the end of the war?

What Were the Costs of the War?

The costs of the war were staggering. A generation of young Europeans lost their lives. Between 8 million and 9 million people died in battle—more than had died in all the wars fought during the previous 100 years. Germany alone lost close to 2 million men. The United States lost over 100,000 men. Many more died of diseases. More than 20 million soldiers on both sides were wounded.

No one knows exactly how many civilians died of disease, starvation, and other war-related causes. Some historians believe as many civilians died as soldiers.

Much of northern France lay in ruins. Millions of Germans were near starvation. Children in many nations were left orphaned and homeless.

In 1918, as the world was reeling from the war, a new disaster struck. A terrible influenza epidemic spread around the globe. An epidemic is the rapid spread of a contagious disease among large numbers of people.

Between 1918 and 1919, more than half a million Americans died in the flu epidemic. The death toll in other countries was even higher. All told, the epidemic killed more than 30 million people worldwide.

Analyze Graphs

As the graph shows, the human costs in injuries and deaths from World War I were enormous.

Compare and Contrast Compare the U.S. casualty total to those of other Allied nations and explain why U.S. casualties might have been different.

READING CHECK

Identify Main Ideas What were the costs of the war beyond the number of soldiers killed in battle?

Lesson Check

What did the armistice achieve?
What were the results of the battles of Belleau Wood and Argonne Forest?
What was the influenza epidemic, and what was the result?
Generate Explanations Why did many civilians die during World War I?
Identify Cause and Effect Why did Lenin choose to withdraw Russian troops from World War I?
Writing Workshop: Draft Your Essay Draft the body of your essay on U.S. expansion and intervention during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Begin each paragraph with a main idea. Add details in the rest of the paragraph that support and explain that main idea.

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