BASIC ACCOUNTING TERMS
(i) Transaction: It means an event or a business activity which involves exchange of money or money’s worth between parties. The event can be measured in terms of money and changes the financial position of a person e.g. purchase of goods would involve receiving material and making payment or creating an obligation to pay to the supplier at a future date. Transaction could be a cash transaction or credit transaction. When the parties settle the transaction immediately by making payment in cash or by cheque, it is called a cash transaction. In credit transaction, the payment is settled at a future date as per agreement between the parties.
(ii) Goods/Services: These are tangible article or commodity in which a business deals. These articles or commodities are either bought and sold or produced and sold. At times, what may be classified as ‘goods’ to one business firm may not be ‘goods’ to the other firm. e.g. for a machine manufacturing company, the machines are ‘goods’ as they are frequently made and sold. But for the buying firm, it is not ‘goods’ as the intention is to use it as a long term resource and not sell it. Services are intangible in nature which are rendered with or without the object of earning profits. (iii) Profit: The excess of Revenue Income over expense is called profit. It could be calculated for each transaction or for business as a whole.
(iv) Loss: The excess of expense over income is called loss. It could be calculated for each transaction or for business as a whole.
(v) Asset: Asset is a resource owned by the business with the purpose of using it for generating future profits. Assets can be Tangible and Intangible. Tangible Assets are the Capital assets which have some physical existence. They can, therefore, be seen, touched and felt, e.g. Plant and Machinery, Furniture and Fittings, Land and Buildings, Books, Computers, Vehicles, etc. The capital assets which have no physical existence and whose value is limited by the rights and anticipated benefits that possession confers upon the owner are known as lntangible Assets. They cannot be seen or felt although they help to generate revenue in future, e.g. Goodwill, Patents, Trade-marks, Copyrights, Brand Equity, Designs, Intellectual Property, etc.
Assets can also be classified into Current Assets and Non-Current Assets.
Current Assets – An asset shall be classified as Current when it satisfies any of the following :
(a) It is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in the Company’s normal Operating Cycle,
(b) It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded ,
(c) It is due to be realised within 12 months after the Reporting Date, or
(d) It is Cash or Cash Equivalent unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a Liability for at least 12 months after the Reporting Date.
Non-Current Assets – All other Assets shall be classified as Non-Current Assets. e.g. Machinery held for long term etc.
(vi) Liability: It is an obligation of financial nature to be settled at a future date. It represents amount of money that the business owes to the other parties. E.g. when goods are bought on credit, the firm will create an obligation to pay to the supplier the price of goods on an agreed future date or when a loan is taken from bank, an obligation to pay interest and principal amount is created. Depending upon the period of holding, these obligations could be further classified into Long Term on non-current liabilities and Short Term or current liabilities.
Current Liabilities – A liability shall be classified as Current when it satisfies any of the following : (a) It is expected to be settled in the Company’s normal Operating Cycle, (b) It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded, (c) It is due to be settled within 12 months after the Reporting Date, or (d) The Company does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least 12 months after the reporting date (Terms of a Liability that could, at the option of the counterparty, result in its settlement by the issue of Equity Instruments do not affect its classification)
Non-Current Liabilities – All other Liabilities shall be classified as Non-Current Liabilities. E.g. Loan taken for 5 years, Debentures issued etc.
(vii) Internal Liability : These represent proprietor’s equity, i.e. all those amount which are entitled to the proprietor, e.g., Capital, Reserves, Undistributed Profits, etc.
(viii) Working Capital : In order to maintain flows of revenue from operation, every firm needs certain amount of current assets. For example, cash is required either to pay for expenses or to meet obligation for service received or goods purchased, etc. by a firm. On identical reason, inventories are required to provide the link between production and sale. Similarly, Accounts Receivable generate when goods are sold on credit. Cash, Bank, Debtors, Bills Receivable, Closing Stock, Prepayments etc. represent current assets of firm. The whole of these current assets form the working capital of a firm which is termed as Gross Working Capital.
Gross Working capital = Total Current Assets
= Long term internal liabilities plus long term debts plus the current liabilities minus the amount blocked in the fixed assets.
There is another concept of working capital. Working capital is the excess of current assets over current liabilities. That is the amount of current assets that remain in a firm if all its current liabilities are paid. This concept of working capital is known as Net Working Capital which is a more realistic concept.
Working Capital (Net) = Current Assets – Currents Liabilities.
(ix) Contingent Liability : It represents a potential obligation that could be created depending on the outcome of an event. E.g. if supplier of the business files a legal suit, it will not be treated as a liability because no obligation is created immediately. If the verdict of the case is given in favour of the supplier then only the obligation is created. Till that it is treated as a contingent liability. Please note that contingent liability is not recorded in books of account, but disclosed by way of a note to the financial statements.
(x) Capital : It is amount invested in the business by its owners. It may be in the form of cash, goods, or any other asset which the proprietor or partners of business invest in the business activity. From business point of view, capital of owners is a liability which is to be settled only in the event of closure or transfer of the business. Hence, it is not classified as a normal liability. For corporate bodies, capital is normally represented as share capital.
(xi) Drawings : It represents an amount of cash, goods or any other assets which the owner withdraws from business for his or her personal use. e.g. if the life insurance premium of proprietor or a partner of business is paid from the business cash, it is called drawings. Drawings will result in reduction in the owners’ capital. The concept of drawing is not applicable to the corporate bodies like limited companies.
(xii) Net worth : It represents excess of total assets over total liabilities of the business. Technically, this amount is available to be distributed to owners in the event of closure of the business after payment of all liabilities. That is why it is also termed as Owner’s equity. A profit making business will result in increase in the owner’s equity whereas losses will reduce it.
(xiii) Non-current Investments : Non-current Investments are investments which are held beyond the current period as to sale or disposal. e. g. Fixed Deposit for 5 years.
(xiv) Current Investments : Current investments are investments that are by their nature readily realizable and are intended to be held for not more than one year from the date on which such investment is made. e. g. 11 months Commercial Paper.
(xv) Debtor : The sum total or aggregate of the amounts which the customer owe to the business for purchasing goods on credit or services rendered or in respect of other contractual obligations, is known as Sundry Debtors or Trade Debtors, or Trade Payable, or Book-Debts or Debtors. In other words, Debtors are those persons from whom a business has to recover money on account of goods sold or service rendered on credit.
These debtors may again be classified as under:
(i) Good debts : The debts which are sure to be realized are called good debts.
(ii) Doubtful Debts : The debts which may or may not be realized are called doubtful debts.
(iii) Bad debts : The debts which cannot be realized at all are called bad debts.
It must be remembered that while ascertaining the debtors balance at the end of the period certain adjustments may have to be made e.g. Bad Debts, Discount Allowed, Returns Inwards, etc.
(xvi) Creditor : A creditor is a person to whom the business owes money or money’s worth. e.g. money payable to supplier of goods or provider of service. Creditors are generally classified as Current Liabilities.
(xvii)Capital Expenditure : This represents expenditure incurred for the purpose of acquiring a fixed asset which is intended to be used over long term for earning profits there from. e. g. amount paid to buy a computer for office use is a capital expenditure. At times expenditure may be incurred for enhancing the production capacity of the machine. This also will be a capital expenditure. Capital expenditure forms part of the Balance Sheet.
(xviii) Revenue expenditure : This represents expenditure incurred to earn revenue of the current period. The benefits of revenue expenses get exhausted in the year of the incurrence. e.g. repairs, insurance, salary & wages to employees, travel etc. The revenue expenditure results in reduction in profit or surplus. It forms part of the Income statement.
(xix) Balance Sheet : It is the statement of financial position of the business entity on a particular date. It lists all assets, liabilities and capital. It is important to note that this statement exhibits the state of affairs of the business as on a particular date only. It describes what the business owns and what the business owes to outsiders (this denotes liabilities) and to the owners (this denotes capital). It is prepared after incorporating the resulting profit/losses of Income statement.
(xx) Profit and Loss Account or Income Statement : This account shows the revenue earned by the business and the expenses incurred by the business to earn that revenue. This is prepared usually for a particular accounting period, which could be a month, quarter, a half year or a year. The net result of the Profit and Loss Account will show profit earned or loss suffered by the business entity.
(xxi) Trade Discount : It is the discount usually allowed by the wholesaler to the retailer computed on the list price or invoice price. e.g. the list price of a TV set could be ` 15000. The wholesaler may allow 20% discount thereof to the retailer. This means the retailer will get it for ` 12000 and is expected to sale it to final customer at the list price. Thus the trade discount enables the retailer to make profit by selling at the list price. Trade discount is not recorded in the books of accounts. The transactions are recorded at net values only. In above example, the transaction will be recorded at `12000 only.
(xxii) Cash Discount : This is allowed to encourage prompt payment by the debtor. This has to be recorded in the books of accounts. This is calculated after deducting the trade discount. e.g. if list price is ` 15000 on which a trade discount of 20% and cash discount of 2% apply, then first trade discount of ` 3000 (20% of ` 15000) will be deducted and the cash discount of 2% will be calculated on `12000 (`15000 – ` 3000). Hence the cash discount will be ` 240 (2% of ` 12000) and net payment will be ` 11,760 (`12,000 - ` 240)
Illustration
1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) The cash discount is allowed by ———— to the —————.
(b) Profit means excess of ——— over —————.
(c) Debtor is a person who ——— to others.
(d) In a credit transaction, the buyer is given a ——— facility.
(e) The fixed asset is generally held for —————.
(f) The current liabilities are obligations to be settled in ——— period.
(g) The withdrawal of money by the owner of business is called ————
(h) The amount invested by owners into business is called —————.
(i) Transaction means exchange of money or money’s worth for ————.
(j) The net result of an income statement is ———— or ————.
(k) The ——————— shows financial position of the business as on a particular date.
(l) The ————— discount is never entered in the books of accounts.
(m) Vehicles represent ———— expenditure while repairs to vehicle would mean ————— expenditure.
(n) Net worth is excess of —— ——— over ——— ———.
Solution: (a) creditor, debtor (b) income, expenditure (c) Owes (d) Credit (e) Longer period (f) Short (g) Drawings (h) Capital (i) Value (j) Profit, loss (k) Balance sheet (l) Trade (m) Capital, revenue (n) Total assets, total liabilities
Illustration 2.
Give one word or a term used to describe the following:-
(a) An exchange of benefit for value
(b) A transaction without immediate cash settlement.
(c) Commodities in which a business deals.
(d) Excess of expenditure over income.
(e) Things of value owned by business to earn future profits.
(f) Amount owed by business to others.
(g) An obligation which may or may not materialise.
(h) An allowance by a creditor to debtor for prompt payment.
(i) Assets like brand value, copy rights, goodwill
Solution: (a) Transaction, (b) credit transaction, (c) goods, (d) loss, (e) Assets, (f) liability, (g) contingent liability, (h) cash discount, (i) intangible assets
