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Diagramming sentences was introduced in the 19th century as a way to reform students who were not speaking English correctly.
Example sentence: "the luck-y boy-s" (broken down into morphemes: functional, lexical, derivational, and inflectional).
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
English has a more complex system of morphemes than Vietnamese, with many inflectional endings and derivational morphemes that change the meaning of words. Vietnamese, on the other hand, has a simpler system of morphemes, with most words being monomorphemic (having only one morpheme).
Diagramming sentences is not a common practice in Vietnamese language teaching or learning, whereas it was widely used in American public schools in the 19th century.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Phrases: a combination of words that convey a specific meaning
Grammatical sequence: the order in which words are combined to form a phrase
Ungrammatical sequences: combinations of words that do not follow the grammatical sequence and are therefore unacceptable or ungrammatical
Article: a word that modifies a noun and indicates its type (e.g. "the", "a", "an")
Adjective: a word that modifies a noun and describes its characteristics (e.g. "lucky", "big", "happy")
Noun: a word that refers to a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g. "boy", "city", "dog")
Content Words:
Noun: ̣Name people, places, things, or ideas.
Examples: dog, house, love,....
Lexical verb: Express actions, states, or occurrences.
Examples: run, eat, have,...
Adj: Describe nouns.
Examples: happy, interesting,....
Adv: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Examples: quickly, very, often,...
Function Words :These include
Prep :Show relationships between nouns or pronouns and other words.
Examples: in, on, at, with, for
Auxiliary verb : Help main verbs to form tenses, moods, and voices.
Examples: do, will, can ,...
Pronoun: Replace nouns.
Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them
Conjunctions : Join words, phrases, or clauses.
Examples: and, but, or, because, if
Article: Indicate whether a noun is definite or indefinite.
Examples: a, an, the
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese have grammatical sequences for combining words into phrases, but the sequences may differ.
In Vietnamese, the grammatical sequence for combining words into phrases may be more flexible than in English, with multiple possible word orders.
Example: In Vietnamese, the phrase "những bé trai may mắn" (the lucky boys) can be translated to "may mắn những bé trai" (lucky boys) without changing the meaning.
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
In traditional grammar, words are classified into categories such as article, adjective, and noun.
The concept of "parts of speech" and "agreement" was inherited from the study of Latin and Greek languages.
In English, an article can be "the" or "a", an adjective can be "lucky", and a noun can be "boys".
In Vietnamese, an article can be "các" (plural) or "một" (singular), an adjective can be "may mắn" (lucky), and a noun can be "những trai" (boys).
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese have articles that indicate whether a noun is specific or general. However, English has only two articles ("the" and "a"), while Vietnamese has more complex article systems depending on the context.
Adjectives in both languages modify or describe nouns, but English adjectives often have more nuanced meanings and usage than Vietnamese adjectives.
Nouns in both languages refer to people, places, things, or ideas, but Vietnamese nouns often have more complex grammatical structures and declensions than English nouns.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
Examples
Nouns:
Common Noun: computer, car, apple
Proper Noun: Amazon, Jupiter, Sarah
Collective Noun: team, flock, class (e.g., The team won the match.)
Articles:
Definite Article: the (e.g., the moon)
Indefinite Articles: a (e.g., a cat), an (e.g., an egg)
Adjectives:
beautiful (e.g., a beautiful garden)
tall (e.g., the tall building)
colorful (e.g., a colorful painting)
Verbs:
Action Verbs: run, jump, write
State Verbs: exist, seem, belong (e.g., She seems tired.)
Transitive Verb: give (e.g., He gives a gift.)
Intransitive Verb: arrive (e.g., They arrive at noon.)
Adverbs:
quickly (e.g., He runs quickly.)
yesterday (e.g., I called her yesterday.)
too (e.g., It's too hot.)
Prepositions:
behind (e.g., The dog is behind the fence.)
during (e.g., I fell asleep during the movie.)
with (e.g., She went with her friends.)
Pronouns:
Demonstrative Pronouns: this, that, these, those (e.g., This is my book.)
Interrogative Pronouns: who, what, which (e.g., Who is coming?)
Relative Pronouns: who, which, that (e.g., The book that I read was great.)
Conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions: nor, yet (e.g., I wanted to go, yet I stayed home.)
Correlative Conjunctions: either...or, neither...nor (e.g., You can either stay or leave.)
Identify parts of speech of the word 'over' in the following sentences:
We were so late that, when we got to the cinema, the film was over.
We were sitting by the lake and a beautiful whit bird flew over.
A beautiful white bird flew over the lake.
An adverb is a word that modifiers or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It provides information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action or state of being is happening.
Preposition: A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other elements in the sentence. Prepositions often indicate location, direction, time, or relationships between different elements in a sentence.
AGREEMENT
Number: refers to whether a noun is singular or plural.
Person: refers to the distinctions of first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others).
Tense: refers to the time at which an action takes place, such as past, present, or future.
Voice: refers to whether the subject of a sentence performs or receives the action described by the verb.
Gender: refers to the biological distinction between male and female, and is used to describe the agreement between nouns and pronouns.
Examples
Number Agreement:
Singular: The teacher teaches. (singular subject, singular verb)
Plural: The teachers teach. (plural subject, plural verb)
Person Agreement:
First Person: We are happy.
Second Person: You are happy.
Third Person: He is happy.
Tense Agreement:
Present: They eat lunch at noon. (present tense)
Past: They ate lunch at noon. (past tense)
Voice Agreement:
Active Voice: The dog chased the cat. (the subject performs the action)
Passive Voice: The cat was chased by the dog. (the subject receives the action)
Gender Agreement:
Female: The girl read her book. (using her for female)
Male: The boy read his book. (using his for male)
Neutral: The student forgot its backpack. (using its for gender-neutral)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages use number, person, tense, voice, and gender categories to describe language structure.
The agreement between nouns and verbs in both languages is based on these categories.
However, Vietnamese uses a different set of pronouns to distinguish between first person singular (tôi), second person singular (mầy), third person singular (cô), third person plural (họ), whereas English uses I, you, he/she/it for first, second, and third person singular respectively.
Vietnamese also uses a different set of verb forms to distinguish between past, present, and future tense.
GRAMMATICAL GENDER
In English, the biological distinction is based on "natural gender" (male and female).
In languages with grammatical gender, nouns are classified according to their gender class (e.g. Spanish: masculine and feminine; German: masculine, feminine, and neuter).
* Example: Spanish - "el sol" (the sun) is masculine, while "la luna" (the moon) is feminine.
* Example: German - "der Mond" (the moon) is masculine, while "die Sonne" (the sun) is feminine, and "das Feuer" (the fire) is neuter.
Grammatical gender is not based on a distinction in sex, meaning that a noun's gender class does not reflect its biological sex.
Examples
Italian:
Masculine: il ragazzo (the boy)
Feminine: la ragazza (the girl)
Russian:
Masculine: стол (stol - table)
Feminine: девушка (devushka - girl)
Neuter: окно (okno - window)
Chinese (uses measure words but no grammatical gender):
一个人 (yí gè rén - one person)
两只猫 (liǎng zhī māo - two cats)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Vietnamese does not have a grammatical gender system like Spanish and German.
English: uses natural gender (male and female) based on biological sex.
Vietnamese: does not have a grammatical gender system, but uses honorifics to distinguish between formal and informal forms of address.
In Vietnamese, nouns are not classified as masculine or feminine, but instead use different forms to indicate respect or familiarity. For example, the word "con" means "child" in both masculine and feminine forms, but the formal form "con trai" is used to show respect for a male child.
TRADITIONAL ANALYSIS
In traditional grammar books, tables were presented to analyze English verbs, similar to those used in Latin grammar.
However, unlike Latin, English verb forms are not different based on person and number.
Instead, English verb forms describe different forms of pronouns.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
The notion of appropriateness of analytic categories is not unique to English; Vietnamese also has its own set of grammatical categories that may not be directly applicable to other languages.
In Vietnamese, the categories of person and number are also used to describe pronouns and verb forms, similar to English.
However, the specific categories and forms used in Vietnamese may differ from those used in English.
THE PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH
THE PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH
In the 18th century, English grammarians followed Latin sentence structures, leading to prescriptive rules for English language use.
Traditional teachers would correct sentences like "Who did you go with?" to "With whom did you go?" to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition.
Examples of prescriptive rules include:
* "You must not split an infinitive" (e.g., "to go quickly" becomes "to quickly go")
* "You must not end a sentence with a preposition" (e.g., "Who did you go with?" becomes "With whom did you go?")
* "You should not begin a sentence with 'and'" (e.g., "And I will go" becomes "I will go")
Split Infinitives:
Prescriptive Rule: "You must not split an infinitive."
Common Usage: To quickly finish the project is a split infinitive, while To finish the project quickly is an alternative without splitting.
Example: To fiercely protect our planet versus To protect our planet fiercely.
Ending Sentences with Prepositions:
Prescriptive Rule: "You must not end a sentence with a preposition."
Common Usage: What are you talking about? is often accepted, despite the prescriptive preference for About what are you talking?.
Example: Who are you going with? versus With whom are you going?.
Using "Me" vs. "I":
Prescriptive Rule: "Use 'I' instead of 'me' in comparative structures."
Common Usage: She runs faster than me is commonly spoken, despite the prescriptive correction to She runs faster than I.
Example: This cake is better than me versus This cake is better than I.
Beginning Sentences with "And" or "But":
Prescriptive Rule: "You should not begin a sentence with 'and' or 'but.'"
Common Usage: Many writers and speakers do start sentences with conjunctions for stylistic reasons. For example, And then they left or But I disagree.
Example: But it was too late to change or And we all agreed.
Double Negatives:
Prescriptive Rule: "Do not use double negatives."
Common Usage: I don't know nothing is often spoken in informal contexts, though the prescriptive version would be I don't know anything.
Example: He didn’t see nobody versus He didn’t see anybody.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
While both languages have grammatical rules, the prescriptive approach is more prevalent in English, with a strong emphasis on traditional grammar rules.
In Vietnamese, the language is more flexible and context-dependent, with fewer strict rules for sentence structure.
CAPTAIN KIRK'S INFINITIVE
English infinitives have the form "to + base form of the verb", e.g. "to go" (English), "đi" (Vietnamese)
English infinitives can be used with adverbs, e.g. "to boldly go" (English), "đi dũng cảm" (Vietnamese: "dũng cảm" means "boldly")
Latin infinitives are single words and do not split, e.g. "ire" (to go) and "audacter" (boldly)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese have infinitive forms, but they are constructed differently: English uses "to" + base form, while Vietnamese uses a single word (e.g. "đi" for "to go")
Both languages allow adverbs to modify infinitives, but English has the option to split infinitives, while Vietnamese does not have this feature
The use of split infinitives in English is not considered "bad" grammar, as it is a unique feature of the language.
THE DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH
THE DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH
Using a traditional grammatical description of Latin may be useful for European languages like Spanish, but less useful for others like English, and potentially misleading for non-European languages.
Linguists faced challenges when trying to describe the structure of native languages in North America, as traditional grammar categories did not fit.
A new approach, the descriptive approach, was adopted to analyze languages by describing their regular structures as used in practice, rather than according to prescriptive rules.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
English and Vietnamese are both non-European languages, so the traditional grammatical description of Latin may not be directly applicable to them.
However, English has a more complex grammar system than Vietnamese, which is an agglutinative language with a simpler grammar system. This may make it more challenging to apply traditional grammar categories to Vietnamese.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural Analysis: a type of descriptive approach that investigates the distribution of forms in a language.
Test-frames: sentences with empty slots that can be filled with different forms to produce good grammatical sentences.
Noun (or N): a grammatical category that includes words such as car, child, donkey, dog, radio.
Noun Phrase(or NP): a grammatical category that includes words such as it, the big dog, an old car, Ani Difranco, the professor with the Scottish accent.
Pronouns: words used in place of noun phrases (not just nouns).
Examples
Test-Frame 1:
The _______________ makes a lot of noise.
Examples that fit: cat, baby, machine, alarm.
Test-Frame 2:
I heard a _______________ yesterday.
Examples that fit: song, thunder, car, noise.
Forms That Don’t Fit:
Words like Cathy, the dog, or a car require different test-frames:
_______________ makes a lot of noise. (does not fit)
I heard _______________ yesterday. (fits)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
In English, pronouns are used in place of noun phrases, while in Vietnamese, pronouns are used in place of nouns or noun phrases.
Vietnamese has a different grammatical structure and word order compared to English, which may affect the way we analyze and categorize linguistic forms.
CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS
English:
The sentence "The old woman brought a large snake from Brazil" can be broken down into nine word-level constituents.
These constituents can be combined to form larger phrases, such as noun phrases ("The old woman", "a large snake", "Brazil"), prepositional phrases ("from Brazil"), and verb phrases ("brought").
The diagram in Figure 7.2 shows the constituent structure of the sentence, illustrating how these phrases can be combined.
Vietnamese:
(The old woman brought a large snake from Brazil) can be broken down into eight word-level constituents: (the old woman), (brought), (a large snake), (from Brazil).
These constituents can be combined to form larger phrases, such as noun phrases ((the old woman), (a large snake)), prepositional phrases ((from Brazil)), and verb phrases ((brought)).
In Vietnamese, the constituent structure of the sentence is similar to that of English, with the same types of phrases being formed.
constituent = component
---> a grammatical analysis of how small constituents (or components) go together to form larger constituents in sentences
How is constituent analysis performed?
---> Breaking the largest components of a sentence into progressively smaller boxes.
My little sister eats lunch at school.
My little sister eats lunch at school.
My little sister eats lunch at school.
*** One advantage of this type of analysis:
it shows rather clearly that proper nouns or names: (Gwen, Kingston) pronouns (I, him, her), though they are single words, can be used as noun phrases and fill the same constituent space as longer phrases ( e.g an old man or the woman.)
Examples
Phrase-Level Analysis
Consider the sentence: The happy child quickly finished her homework after school.
Identifying Constituents:
Word-level constituents:
The, happy, child, quickly, finished, her, homework, after, school.
Phrase-level Constituents:
We can group the words into phrases:
Noun Phrase (NP): The happy child
Verb Phrase (VP): quickly finished her homework
Prepositional Phrase (PP): after school
Example 1: Sentence Analysis
Sentence: The curious dog chased a squirrel in the park.
Test-Frame 1: The _______________ chased a squirrel.
Fits: dog, cat, child (N).
Test-Frame 2: I saw a _______________ in the park.
Fits: squirrel, bird, tree (N).
Noun Phrases:
NP: The curious dog, a squirrel, the park.
Constituent Breakdown:
NP: The curious dog
VP: chased a squirrel in the park
PP: in the park
Example 2: Sentence Analysis
Sentence: Many students attended the conference in April.
Test-Frame 1: Many _______________ attended the conference.
Fits: students, people, cats (N).
Test-Frame 2: I met _______________ in April.
Fits: students, friends, professionals (N).
Noun Phrases:
NP: Many students, the conference, April.
Constituent Breakdown:
NP: Many students
VP: attended the conference in April
PP: in April
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese use similar constituent structures to analyze sentences, with the same types of phrases being formed (noun phrases, prepositional phrases, verb phrases).
However, the specific words and word order used in each language may differ. For example, in Vietnamese, the word order is often Subject-Object-Verb, whereas in English it is typically Subject-Verb-Object.
SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS
SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS
In English, the subject is typically the first noun phrase before the verb, while the object is typically the noun phrase after the verb.
In English, pronouns used as subjects are different from those used as objects (e.g. "I" vs. "me", "he" vs. "him").
The subject noun phrase determines the form of the verb as singular or plural, while the object noun phrase has no such effect.
e.g: I wish I were a bird
If I were a bird
If she were a bird
=> Past subjunctive: unreal situation
+ I recommend/ suggest/ insist/... he not see the doctor
-> Subject + verb + that + subject + [verb in simple form]+...
+ It is urgent/ important/... that S+ present subjunctive
-> It+ be + adj + that + S +[verb in simple form]
=> Present subjunctive: something urgent
Examples
Sentence: The cat (subject) chased (verb) the mouse (object) in the garden (adjunct).
Subject: The cat (performs the action).
Object: the mouse (undergoes the action).
Adjunct: in the garden (provides additional information).
Subject and Object
Sentence: The teacher (subject) assigned (verb) the homework (object) on Monday (adjunct).
Subject: The teacher (the one performing the action).
Object: the homework (the thing being assigned).
Adjunct: on Monday (indicates when the action occurred).
Subject and Object
Sentence: My brother (subject) gave (verb) me (object) a gift (object) for my birthday (adjunct).
Subject: My brother (the one who gave).
Object: me (the recipient of the action).
Additional Object: a gift (the item given).
Adjunct: for my birthday (provides context).
Subject and Object
Sentence: The dog (subject) fetched (verb) the ball (object) from the lake (adjunct).
Subject: The dog (the one performing the action).
Object: the ball (the item being fetched).
Adjunct: from the lake (indicates the location).
Subject and Object with Pronouns
Sentence: She (subject) called (verb) him (object) yesterday (adjunct).
Subject: She (the one making the call).
Object: him (the person being called).
Adjunct: yesterday (provides timing).
Comparison betwween English and Vietnamese
In Vietnamese, the subject-verb-object (SVO) word order is also common, but it's not as rigid as in English. Vietnamese often uses particles to indicate grammatical function, rather than relying on word order.
In Vietnamese, pronouns used as subjects and objects are not differentiated by form as much as they are in English. For example, both "tôi" (I) and "mẹ" (me) can be used as both subject and object pronouns.
WORD ORDER
WORD ORDER
The basic linear order of constituents in English is Noun Phrase-Verb-Noun Phrase (NP V NP).
The typical grammatical functions in English are Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), as shown in the example sentence "John saw the big dog".
In English, the adjective usually precedes the noun, whereas in some languages like Scottish Gaelic and Malagasy, the adjective follows the noun.
Japanese is a verb-final language, with a word order of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), as illustrated in the sentence "" (Jon ga ookii inu o mita).
Examples
Subject–Verb–Object (SVO): Common in English.
Example: Alice (Subject) read (Verb) the book (Object).
Subject–Object–Verb (SOV): Common in languages like Japanese.
Example: Alice (Subject) the book (Object) read (Verb). (Japanese: アリスが本を読んだ, Arisu ga hon o yonda).
Verb–Subject–Object (VSO): Found in languages like Gaelic.
Example: Read (Verb) Alice (Subject) the book (Object). (Gaelic: Leugh Iain an leabhar, “Read John the book.”)
Verb–Object–Subject (VOS): Seen in languages like Malagasy.
Example: Read (Verb) the book (Object) Alice (Subject). (Malagasy: Novakian’i Rajaona ny boky, “Rajaona read the book.”)
Object–Subject–Verb (OSV): Found in some South American languages.
Example: The book (Object) Alice (Subject) read (Verb). (Example language: Yukuna: Wasa ali taja joa, “The book Alice read.”)
Object–Verb–Subject (OVS): Also seen in some languages.
Example: The book (Object) read (Verb) Alice (Subject). (Example language: Hixkaryana: Ewa kîhïp jë, “The book read Alice.”)
Additional examples
SVO (English)
Sentence: The cat (Subject) chased (Verb) the mouse (Object).
Breakdown:
Subject: The cat (performs the action)
Verb: chased
Object: the mouse (undergoes the action)
SOV (Japanese)
Sentence: 彼はリンゴを食べた (Kare wa ringo o tabeta).
Translation: He (Subject) an apple (Object) ate (Verb).
Breakdown:
Subject: 彼 (He)
Object: リンゴ (an apple)
Verb: 食べた (ate)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
English and Vietnamese both use a SVO word order, but Vietnamese has more flexibility in its word order than English.
In Vietnamese, the adjective often precedes the noun, similar to English.
Vietnamese has a more complex system of sentence structure than English, with more flexibility in placing adjectives and adverbs.
LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY
Language typology is the study of similarities in grammatical structures of languages.
There are four main types of word order patterns: SVO, VOS, SOV, and OVS.
Examples of SVO word order pattern: English (e.g., "I eat an apple"), Vietnamese (e.g., "Tôi ăn một quả táo").
Examples of VOS word order pattern: Malayalam (e.g., "I see him"), Hawaiian (e.g., "I love her").
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese use the SVO word order pattern, meaning that the subject comes first, followed by the verb, and then the object.
WHY STUDY GRAMMAR ?
WHY STUDY GRAMMAR ?
In English, there are strict rules for combining words in a specific order to create phrases and sentences.
In Vietnamese, the word order is often different from English, such as "the big dog" vs. "con chó lớn" (the large dog).
Second language learners may face difficulties when trying to acquire a language that has a different structural organization than their first language.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
English has a strict word order, while Vietnamese has a more flexible word order.
English uses a subject-verb-object word order, while Vietnamese uses a subject-object-verb word order.
STUDY QUESTIONS
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Identify all the parts of speech used in this sentence (e.g. woman = noun): The woman kept a large snake in a cage, but it escaped recently.
Parts of Speech in the Sentence
The: Determiner
woman: Noun
kept: Verb
a: Determiner
large: Adjective
snake: Noun
in: Preposition
a: Determiner
cage: Noun
but: Conjunction
it: Pronoun
escaped: Verb
recently: Adverb
2 How many adverbs are there in the following sentence?
Really large objects move very slowly.
Adverbs in the Sentence
There are two adverbs:
Really
very
3 What is the tense and voice of the verb in the following sentence?
My parents were married in Rome.
Tense and Voice of the Verb
Tense: Past tense
Voice: Passive voice
4 What is the difference between grammatical gender and natural gender?
Grammatical Gender vs. Natural Gender
Grammatical gender is a grammatical category that assigns a gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) to nouns and pronouns based on grammatical rules. Natural gender refers to the biological sex of a person or animal.
5 What prescriptive rules for the “proper” use of English are not obeyed in thefollowing sentences and how would they be “corrected”?
(a) The old theory consistently failed to fully explain all the data.
(b) I can’t remember the name of the person I gave the book to.
Prescriptive Rules and Corrections
(a) The old theory consistently failed to fully explain all the data.
Prescriptive rule: Avoid double negatives.
Corrected: The old theory consistently failed to explain all the data.
(b) I can’t remember the name of the person I gave the book to.
Prescriptive rule: Use whom instead of who after a preposition.
Corrected: I can’t remember the name of the person to whom I gave the book.
6 How many noun phrases are there in the following sentence?
Robert brought a small puppy to the party and we all wanted to keep it.
Noun Phrases in the Sentence
There are four noun phrases:
Robert
a small puppy
the party
it
7 What was wrong with the older Latin-influenced definition of English pronouns?
Problem with Older Latin-Influenced Definition of English Pronouns
The older Latin-influenced definition of English pronouns often treated them as "pronouns of nouns," suggesting that they were mere substitutes for nouns. This definition was problematic because it failed to capture the complex grammatical functions and meanings of pronouns in English.
8 What is the grammatical function of the proper noun in the following sentence?
The professor and her students visited Berlin during the summer.
Grammatical Function of the Proper Noun
In the sentence "The professor and her students visited Berlin during the summer," the proper noun "Berlin" functions as the object of the preposition "during."
9 Is Malagasy a VSO language or something else?
Malagasy Language Type
Malagasy is a VSO language, meaning the verb typically comes before the subject and object in a sentence.
10 Given these other Gaelic words, translate the following sentences into English: beag (“small”) bhuail (“hit”) dubh (“black”) duine (“man”) gille (“boy”)
(a) Bhuail an gille beag an cu dubh
(b) Chunnaic an cu an duine mor
Translation from Gaelic to English
(a) Bhuail an gille beag an cu dubh.
English: The small boy hit the black dog.
(b) Chunnaic an cu an duine mor.
English: The dog saw the big man.
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