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Easter: A Christian holiday celebrating the resurrection of Jesus. In the context, it is associated with various cultural traditions, such as the Easter Bunny and Easter eggs.
Bilingual: The ability to speak two languages fluently. Refers to individuals who grow up in environments where more than one language is spoken, allowing for simultaneous acquisition.
Cultural Traditions: Practices and beliefs that are specific to a particular culture, such as the way holidays are celebrated.
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Enigma: A puzzling or inexplicable situation. In this context, it refers to the mystery of how learning capabilities at an early age seem to differ from those in later years.
L1 (First Language): The native language of a person, learned naturally during early childhood.
L2 (Second Language): A language that a person learns in addition to their first language, often in a formal setting.
EFL (English as a Foreign Language): Learning English in a context where it is not the primary language of communication (e.g., Japanese students learning English in Japan).
ESL (English as a Second Language): Learning English in an environment where it is the primary language spoken (e.g., Japanese students learning English in the USA).
=> the main difference between FL and SL is the context in which the language is learned
E.X: In the United States, Spanish is often taught as a second language due to its prevalence in many communities.
In Vietnam, many students learn English as a second language starting in primary school to improve their future job prospects and communication with international visitors.
ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
Acquisition: The natural, gradual development of language ability through real-life communication with fluent speakers, often without formal instruction.
Learning: A deliberate process of gaining knowledge about a language's rules and structure (vocabulary, grammar) typically in a classroom setting, facilitated by teachers.
=> Those who acquire language through immersive interaction tend to achieve greater fluency than those who primarily learn language through structured study.
ACQUISITION BARRIERS
Proficiency: The ability to speak or write a language competently, often assessed in terms of fluency, accuracy, and native-like pronunciation
Time: Busy schedules leave little time for language practice, slowing progress.
Focus: Distractions or lack of structure reduce learners’ concentration and retention.
Incentive: Without clear benefits, learners may lack motivation to continue.
THE AGE FACTOR
Difficulty of Language Acquisition Post-Critical Period
Pronunciation Dominance of L1
Better L2 Learning in Early Teens
AFFECTIVE FACTORS
Acquisition Barrier: Factors that hinder the ability to learn a new language effectively.
Self-Consciousness: A heightened awareness of oneself that can lead to embarrassment or reluctance in participating actively, particularly in language use.
Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others, which may influence the willingness to engage with their language and culture.
Affective Factors: Emotional components that can impact learning, such as stress, discomfort, and lack of motivation.
Affective factors are beneficial for L2:
self-confidence
low anxiety
positive self-image
Affective facotrs may influence for L2:
Inhibition
Lack of empathy
Self-consicousness
Strong unwillingness
Embarrassment
Discomfort
Demotivation
Stress
Dull textbook
Unpleasant classroom surroundings
Exhausting schedule
FOCUS ON TEACHING METHOD
FOCUS ON TEACHING METHOD
Instruction in Other Languages: The teaching and learning of languages other than the mother tongue.
Educational Approaches and Methods: Various strategies and techniques employed to facilitate language learning.
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
L2 Learning: Refers to the process of learning a second language, which in this case involves the study of a language that is not one's native tongue.
Vocabulary Lists: Collections of words and their meanings that learners are expected to memorize and understand.
Grammar Rules: Established principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language, which learners are taught to understand and apply.
Grammar–Translation Method: A traditional language teaching method that focuses on the explicit learning of grammar and vocabulary, often through direct translation exercises.
Memorization: The process of committing information to memory, emphasized in this traditional approach to language learning.
Written Language vs. Spoken Language: The distinction between understanding and using language in written form versus in spoken interactions; the former is emphasized in this teaching method.
Focus :Memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary
Language emphasis :Written language prioritized
Practice :Grammar exercises and translations
Learning outcome :Knowledge of grammar rules
THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Audiolingual Method: A language teaching approach that emphasizes the importance of spoken language through systematic presentation and repetition of language structures.
Drills: Repetitive exercises for practicing language patterns, often used in language labs.
Fluency as Habit: The belief that speaking a language fluently is the result of forming specific habits through extensive practice.
Focus: Drilling language structures complex.
Language emphasis: Spoken language emphasized.
Practice:Repetition of drills
Learning outcome :Ability to repeat memorized phrases
Weakness
Lack of emphasis on comprehension and communication skills
Overemphasis on rote memorization and repetition
Failure to provide opportunities for spontaneous and creative use of the language
Neglecting the cultural aspect of language learning
Monotonous and boring nature of drills and exercises.
EX:
The teacher presents a simple sentence structure: "This is a book."
Students repeat the sentence: "This is a book." (class repeats in unison)
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES
L2 Learning Experience: Language acquisition process for a second language.
Communicative Approaches: Teaching methodologies focused on interaction and practical language use rather than rote memorization of grammar.
Pattern-Practice: Traditional language teaching method emphasizing repetitive drills of language patterns.
Functions of Language: The practical use of language in social contexts (what we do with language).
Forms of Language: The grammatical and structural components of a language (how language is constructed).
Focus:Using language for communication
Language emphasis: Learning language for specific situations (e.g., asking for things, business communication).
Practice :Role-playing, conversations, real-life scenarios
Learning outcome : Ability to use the language effectively in real situations
FOCUS ON THE LEARNER
FOCUS ON THE LEARNER
L2 Studies: Refers to research and theories surrounding the learning of a second language (L2) as opposed to a first language (L1).
Acquisition Process: The natural, often unconscious process through which a learner picks up a second language, similar to how a child learns their first language.
Errors: Mistakes made by learners in the process of acquiring a new language, viewed traditionally as negative but now more accepted as part of the learning experience.
E.x: "There are three womens" is not just a mistake, but an indication of the learner actively trying to grasp English pluralization rules (similar to how children learn their first language).
TRANSFER
Transfer / Crosslinguistic Influence: The phenomenon where features from a learner's first language (L1) affect their performance in a second language (L2).
Positive Transfer: When similarities between L1 and L2 aid in learning, facilitating easier understanding and use of the L2.
Negative Transfer / Interference: When dissimilarities between L1 and L2 hinder learning, leading to misunderstandings or incorrect usage of the L2.
If the L1 and L2 have similar features (e.g. marking plural on the ends of nouns)
-> benefit from the positive transfer
-> Positive transfer in L2 learning occurs when a learner's knowledge of their L1 facilitates the learning of their L2
e.g:
French and English are quite similar in written form
Vietnamese and English are quite similar in word order (S-V-O)
Transferring an L1 feature that is really different from the L2 (e.g. putting the adjective after the noun) -> in negative transfer => make the L2 expression difficult to understand.
e.g: Vietnamese students: "She studies good"
INTERLANGUAGE
Interlanguage: A transitional linguistic system that L2 learners use while acquiring a second language, containing elements of both their first language (L1) and the second language (L2). It is characterized by its variability and distinct rules.
Fossilization: A phenomenon where certain language patterns or errors become fixed in a learner's interlanguage, preventing further progress in language acquisition. This often leads to a foreign accent.
MOTIVATION
Instrumental Motivation: The drive to learn a second language (L2) to achieve a specific goal, such as academic requirements or professional advancement, without substantial social interaction in the L2.
Integrative Motivation: The desire to learn a second language to engage socially with a community and to become an accepted member of that community.
=> An important part of that opportunity is the availability of “input.”
L2 Communication Success: The effective use of a second language that fosters motivation and encourages further learning.
Language Learning Environment: An educational setting that either promotes communication and risk-taking or focuses largely on errors, which affects motivation and success.
INPUT AND OUTPUT
Comprehensible Input: Language that is understandable to the learner, simplified in structure and vocabulary. An example is **foreigner talk**, where native speakers adjust their language to aid comprehension—for instance, using simpler questions like "English class, you like it?" instead of more complex structures.
Negotiated Input: L2 material acquired through interactive exchanges involving requests for clarification, helping learners focus on meaning while receiving input. This is crucial for language acquisition as it leads to deeper understanding.
=> Meaningful interaction is important for input and output
TASK-BASED LEARNING
Task-Based Learning: An instructional approach that emphasizes using meaningful tasks as a primary means for language acquisition. In this context, tasks are activities that require communication and interaction among learners.
Communicative Competence: The ability to use a language effectively and appropriately in various contexts. This includes not only grammatical knowledge but also the ability to convey and interpret meaning.
Fluency: The ability to express oneself easily and accurately in a language, particularly in spoken communication.
=> The results of such task-based learning provide overwhelming evidence of more and better L2 use by more learners
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Grammatical Competence: The accurate use of words and sentence structures; focuses on syntax and vocabulary.
Sociolinguistic Competence: The ability to use language appropriately in social contexts, involving an understanding of cultural norms and situational nuances.
Strategic Competence: The skill to effectively organize and convey a message, especially when facing communication barriers; includes the use of compensation strategies to bridge gaps in language knowledge.
STUDY QUESTIONS
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Which of these students are studying English in an EFL setting: Chinese students in Beijing or English students in Paris or Japanese students in London?
**Chinese students in Beijing** are studying English in an EFL (English as a Foreign Language) setting, as they are in a non-English-speaking country, learning English primarily as a foreign language in a formal educational setting.
2 Why do we say that mathematics is learned, not acquired?
**Mathematics is learned, not acquired**, because it requires conscious study and instruction, unlike language acquisition, which happens naturally, especially in early childhood, as part of communicative interaction without explicit instruction.
3 What are four typical barriers to acquiring an L2 as an adult compared to L1 acquisition as a child?
- **Cognitive differences**: Adults rely on explicit learning strategies, while children often learn implicitly.
- **Neuroplasticity**: Younger brains are more adaptable for language acquisition.
- **Social and psychological factors**: Adults may feel more self-conscious, which can affect language learning.
- **Exposure**: Children often have more immersion in natural language settings, while adults may lack such immersive experiences.
4 What aspect of language learning do you think “the Joseph Conrad phenomenon” refers to?
**The "Joseph Conrad phenomenon"** refers to achieving high proficiency in a second language, particularly in reading and writing, without fully eliminating a foreign accent, as was the case with writer Joseph Conrad.
5 What is one personality trait that is a positive factor in language learning?
**One personality trait that positively influences language learning** is **openness to experience**, which helps learners adapt to and embrace new languages and cultures.
6 Which approach to language teaching is characterized by oral drills?
The **Audio-Lingual Approach** is characterized by **oral drills** and repetition to reinforce language patterns.
7 What is the difference between positive and negative transfer?
**Positive transfer** occurs when a learner’s L1 helps with L2 learning (e.g., similar vocabulary), while **negative transfer** happens when L1 interferes with L2, often leading to errors.
8 What happens when an interlanguage fossilizes?
**Interlanguage fossilization** happens when a learner’s interlanguage (their evolving language system) stabilizes with certain incorrect forms, which then become resistant to correction, often due to lack of sufficient input or practice.
9 What kind of input is necessary for acquisition?
**Comprehensible input**—language that is slightly above the learner’s current proficiency level—is necessary for acquisition, as it helps learners understand and gradually acquire more complex structures.
10 What are the three components of communicative competence?
- **Linguistic competence**: knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.
- **Sociolinguistic competence**: ability to use language appropriately in various social contexts.
- **Pragmatic or discourse competence**: skill in constructing coherent and contextually appropriate messages.
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