PRAGMATICS

Referential Meaning: The literal meaning of a word or phrase, focused on what it refers to.

Speaker Meaning: The intended meaning of a speaker in a specific context, influenced by their communicative intentions.

Pragmatics: The study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Cultural Context: Both cultures demonstrate the significant role that historical contexts play in language interpretation; however, the specific historical references will differ.
In English, historical events like the World Wars are commonly recognized, while in Vietnamese, nuanced historical conflicts (e.g., wars with France or the US) play a critical role in understanding local language.

English Example: Misunderstanding due to the assumption about the recent war.

Communication Style: English speakers may tend to provide more explicit information in conversations, while Vietnamese speakers might rely more on shared cultural knowledge, which can lead to different interpretations based on context.
Comparison: English communication values clarity and directness, whereas Vietnamese communication might value indirectness and implication, which influences how misunderstandings occur.

INVISIBLE MEANING

Invisible Meaning: Refers to the implied or suggested meaning in communication that goes beyond what is explicitly stated.

Shared Assumptions and Expectations: The mutual background knowledge and social conventions that help people understand implied meanings during communication.

For example: "Would you like to try a pastry?" This question is not just a simple inquiry but a polite offer to give you a free sample. The listener understands that they don't have to pay for the pastry sample, as it is a promotional gesture. This meaning is implied without being explicitly stated.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Context Reliance: Both languages rely on context for understanding meaning, though cultural context may influence interpretations differently. For instance, directness may be more accepted in English communication, while Vietnamese speakers might imply their needs more subtly due to cultural norms.
Ambiguity and Inference: Ambiguity is inherent in both languages, but the approach to resolving it can differ. English speakers may appreciate humor or puns in ambiguity, while Vietnamese speakers might focus more on the relational aspect of communication.
Cultural Implications: In both languages, shared cultural knowledge aids in appreciating deeper meanings. For example, idiomatic expressions in English may have counterparts in Vietnamese that reflect similar societal norms or values, enhancing understanding beyond verbal communication.

CONTEXT

Meaning: The interpretation of a sign based on the words used, context, and intended message.

Context: The circumstances surrounding a word or phrase that influence its interpretation, which includes physical and linguistic (co-text) contexts.

Co-text: The words surrounding a particular word or phrase that clarify its meaning.

e.g: If the word "bank" is used alongside words like "steep" or "overgrown," => talking about a riverbank > a financial institution.

The process by which readers and listeners arrive at an interpretation of a message:

1, Based solely on the meanings of the words used in the message

2, Based on the pre-existing knowledge of the reader or listener

3, Based on the context in which the words occur

For example: "I'll meet you there tomorrow." The meaning of "there" and "tomorrow" depends entirely on context. If you don’t know where or when this conversation is happening, you won’t know where "there" is or which day "tomorrow" refers to. In context, if you're discussing a park and it's February 10th, you would understand "there" to mean the park and "tomorrow" to mean February 11th.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Interpretation Process: Both English and Vietnamese speakers use context and co-text to arrive at interpretations, often considering cultural context and common usage.
Ambiguity Resolution: In both languages, phrases can have multiple interpretations, but contextual cues guide the listener to the intended meaning. The example of the "Furniture Sale" would similarly attract confusion in both English and Vietnamese due to linguistic and cultural contexts.
Context Importance: The critical role of context is universal; both languages rely on physical and linguistic contexts to clarify meaning. Understanding word use in phrases is key, whether in English or Vietnamese.

DEIXIS

Deictic Expressions: Words that require context to convey meaning, indicating people, places, and times. Derived from the Greek word "deixis," meaning "pointing."

Example: here, there, tomorrow

Temporal Deixis: Refers to expressions that indicate time.

Example: now, yesterday, next week

Spatial Deixis: Refers to expressions that indicate location.

Example: here, there, over there

Person Deixis: Refers to expressions that indicate people.

Example: I, you, she, it, them

Ex:

Present tense pointing to present time

- "I am eating lunch now."
- "She is working today."

Past tense pointing to past time

- "He went to the store yesterday."
- "They finished the project last week."

Future tense pointing future time

- "We will meet tomorrow."
- "She is going to start next month."

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Context Dependence: Both English and Vietnamese rely heavily on context for understanding pronouns and temporal/spatial indicators. This underscores a universal aspect of deixis across languages.
Space and Time Distinction: Both languages utilize similar structures to distinguish between what is near and far in terms of time (now vs. then) and space (here vs. there). They both emphasize proximity in expression.
Emotional Expression: In both languages, deixis can express emotional distancing. However, while the mechanics of the language differ, the underlying principle of distancing oneself from unpleasantness remains consistent.

=> Overall, while English and Vietnamese are distinct languages, they share common elements in the use of deixis, emphasizing the importance of context in communication.

REFERENCE

Deixis: The linguistic term referring to words and phrases that need contextual information to convey meaning, particularly related to people, places, and times.
Reference: An act performed by a speaker or writer that allows a listener or reader to identify something, often using proper nouns, phrases, or pronouns.
Range of Reference: The idea that a word or phrase can refer to multiple entities depending on context; for example, “she” may refer to different individuals in different situations.

e.g: The words Jennifer or friend or she can be used to refer to many entities in the world

TYPES OF REFERENCE

1. Exophoric reference: occurs when a word/ phrase refers to something outside the discourse

Ex: They're my parents ( they: refers to a person outside the discourse)

2. Anaphoric reference: occurs when a word/ phrase refers to something mentioned earlier in the discourse. ( referring backward )

Ex: Sofia is a beautiful girl. She is also smart and kind.

3. Cataphoric reference: occurs when a word/ phrase refers to something mentioned later in the discourse. ( referring forward )

Ex: He is a good teacher. Brent is also handsome.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Both English and Vietnamese utilize deixis and reference contextually, highlighting that words do not have fixed meanings independently of context.
The concept of a "range of reference" applies similarly in both languages, as names and pronouns can indicate multiple entities.
Creative references (like nicknames or identifiers based on characteristics) are common in both languages but may reflect cultural differences in naming conventions or humor. For example, the Vietnamese reference to "Ông Kawasaki" shares the same playful connotation found in the English example.

INFERENCE

Inference: The process by which a listener or reader uses additional information or context to derive meaning beyond what is explicitly stated. It allows individuals to make connections and understand implied meanings.

e.g:

(1) "I heard that John won the lottery."

Inference: The listener might infer that John is now wealthy, even though the statement doesn't explicitly say so.

(2) "She brought her new puppy to the park."

Inference: The listener can infer that the puppy is small and playful, based on common knowledge about puppies.

Contextual Recognition: Understanding that words can have different meanings based on the situation and drawing on shared knowledge to interpret those meanings accurately.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Inference Process: Both English and Vietnamese rely heavily on cultural and contextual inferences for communication. In both languages, a reference to something or someone often requires the listener to have a shared understanding of what is being discussed, transcending mere dictionary definitions.
Usage of Nouns and Proper Nouns: In both languages, nouns can refer to people and vice versa. The language structure may differ, but the underlying principle of using inference to derive meaning remains consistent.
Understanding Cultural Context: Similar cultural references are used in both languages, although the specific examples may differ. In both English and Vietnamese, listeners must interpret statements based on their knowledge of social norms and cultural context, reinforcing the importance of inference in communication.

ANAPHORA

Antecedent: The first mention of a referent in discourse that provides information for subsequent references (e.g., "a puppy").

e.g: a boy, a puppy and a small bath are antecedents and The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath are anaphoric expressions

Anaphora: A linguistic term referring to subsequent mentions of an antecedent, typically through pronouns or related noun phrases (e.g., "the puppy", "it").
Cataphora: A less common referential relationship where a pronoun or definite noun is mentioned before its antecedent (e.g., "It suddenly appeared...").

e.g: It suddenly appeared on the path a little ahead of me, staring in my direction and sniffing the air. An enormous grizzly bear was checking me out.

Presupposition: An assumption made by the speaker or writer that influences how information is received (e.g., assuming a "shooting" involves a "gun").

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Structure: Both English and Vietnamese employ similar structures for introducing referents and using anaphora, though the syntax differs.
Inference and Presupposition: Both languages rely on inferences and presuppositions to connect antecedents and their references. However, cultural contexts may affect the assumptions made by speakers or writers in each language.
Patterns of Reference: Anaphora is more commonly used in both languages, while cataphora can be effective in narrative styles in both English and Vietnamese.
Use of Pronouns: Both languages utilize pronouns and related nouns to create referential connections, but the specific pronouns and grammatical rules can vary.

=> Overall, while the terms and referential structures are straightforward in both languages, the level of clarity and inference in communication can differ based on linguistic and cultural contexts.

PRESUPPOSITION

Referring Expression: A linguistic term used to identify specific entities or individuals (e.g., "he," "Jennifer"). It assumes that the listener can identify whom or what is being referred to.

Constancy under Negation: A test for identifying presuppositions by comparing a sentence with its negative form to see which assumptions remain valid in both versions.

e.g: the statement "My car is a wreck" presupposes that "I have a car," and this presupposition holds true even in the negative form, "My car is not a wreck."

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Both English and Vietnamese utilize referring expressions with similar reliance on shared knowledge. The mechanics of presupposition are largely the same in both languages, as they expect the listener to accept certain truths without them being explicitly stated.

PRAGMATIC MARKERS

Pragmatic Markers: These are short expressions used in conversation, such as "you know," "well," "I mean," and "I don’t know," that add context to the utterances and can reflect a speaker's attitude toward the listener or the message being conveyed.

e.g:

"Well, I think we should wait until tomorrow."

Purpose: Well is used to introduce a response or a shift in the conversation.

Shared Knowledge: The topic or information that both the speaker and listener are presumed to have or understand, often signaled by phrases like "you know."
Hesitation or Uncertainty Markers: Phrases like "I don’t know" that have evolved to indicate a pause or reluctance before disagreeing or introducing a different opinion, instead of solely expressing a lack of knowledge.

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Pragmatic Markers: Both languages employ pragmatic markers to enhance clarity and indicate attitudes about the message; however, the specific phrases used may differ in cultural context and frequency.
Shared Knowledge: The concept of shared knowledge is expressed similarly, though the phrases themselves are linguistically different. Both cultures assume listeners have a certain level of familiarity with common topics.
Hesitation or Uncertainty: In both English and Vietnamese, speakers use hesitation markers to remain polite when diverging from another’s opinions. This reflects a cultural tendency in both languages toward maintaining harmony in conversations, though the phrases chosen may vary.

=> Overall, pragmatic markers serve similar functions in both English and Vietnamese to create a cooperative and polite conversational environment, even as the linguistic expressions differ.

POLITENESS

Politeness: The practice of showing awareness and consideration for others’ feelings and self-image.

Face: In pragmatics, this refers to an individual’s public self-image and social identity that others are expected to acknowledge.

Face-threatening act (FTA): Actions or statements that jeopardize another person's self-image or social standing (e.g., direct commands that imply social superiority).

e.g: a direct command may threaten someone's face by assuming higher social power.

Face-saving act: Actions or statements that mitigate potential threats to another’s self-image (e.g., indirect requests).

E.g:

You directly command to get someone to do something (Give me that paper!)

→ more social power than the other person.

A face-threatening act is when something you say or do threatens another person’s self-image.

1. Criticizing someone's work in front of others

2. Interrupting someone while they are speaking

3. Disagreeing with someone's opinion in a confrontational way

4. Correcting someone's mistake in a public setting

5. Insulting someone's appearance or behavior

For example: Clean your room now!

A face-saving act is any behavior or utterance that is designed to mitigate the damage caused by a face-threatening act.

1. Apologizing for a mistake

2. Using humor to diffuse a tense situation. Providing an explanation or justification for one's actions

4. Agreeing to disagree with someone rather than escalating an argument

5. Expressing appreciation for someone's perspective even if you don't agree with it.

For example: Could you clean your room when you have time?

Comparison between English and Vietnamese

Politeness Strategies: Both English and Vietnamese cultures value politeness, but the nuances and expressions can differ. For example, Vietnamese often employs intricate honorifics and titles to show respect which might not be as explicit in English.
Directness: English often uses indirect questions to soften requests similarly to how Vietnamese does. However, Vietnamese might employ additional layers of politeness through verb forms or sentence structure, reflecting a higher degree of formality.
Face Concept: Both languages recognize the importance of face, but the implications differ culturally. The societal norms in Vietnam might enforce a clearer hierarchy influencing politeness, while English might prioritize individual equality in interpersonal communications.

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FACE

Negative Face: The need for independence and freedom from imposition. It reflects an individual's desire to avoid being constrained by others.

Example: Expressions like “I’m sorry to bother you…” show concern for the negative face.

Positive Face: The need for connection and belonging to a group. This reflects an individual's desire for social acceptance and support.

Example: Statements like “Let’s do this together…” emphasize solidarity and shared goals.

Negative face is the need to be independent and free from imposition or action.

1. Being indirect when making a request

2. Being mindful of interrupting others when they are speaking

3. Respecting someone's privacy and personal space

4. Avoiding imposing on others

5. Respecting others' autonomy

----> A face-saving act that emphasizes a person's negative face will show concern about imposition

For example: I hate to bother you, but could you help me with this report?

Positive face is the need to be connected, to belong/ to be a member of a group, to be respected.

1. Using polite language, such as "please" and "thank you."

2. Showing interest in what someone has to say

3. Showing appreciation for others' opinions

4. Being supportive of others

----> A face-saving act that emphasizes a person's positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal.

For example: You’re so good at organizing, could you help me with this report? We’d make a great team!

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Direct vs. Indirect Communication:

In English-speaking cultures, directness is often valued as an expression of confidence and clarity, which can enhance social connections.

In Vietnamese culture, communication is frequently more indirect, which emphasizes respect and saves face by avoiding overt impositions.

Face-Saving Acts: Both cultures recognize the importance of face-saving acts, but the preferred methods differ. English may lean towards explicit apologies and acknowledgments of burden (negative face), whereas Vietnamese might employ more subtle cues to maintain harmony (positive face).
Perception of Requests: Direct requests in English can signify assertiveness and can be accepted positively among peers, while the same in Vietnamese might carry a risk of coming off as rude or presumptive.

SPEECH ACTS

Speech Act: An action performed via language that can include requesting, commanding, questioning, or informing.

Example: The phrase "I'll be there at six" performs the speech act of promising.

Utterance: A spoken or written statement that conveys meaning.

Example: Each speech act is represented by an utterance, which can carry different actions depending on context.

The relationship between the structure of an utterance and its function is important. Three main structures are:

Interrogative (e.g., "Did you finish the homework? ") - Typically used for asking questions.
Imperative (e.g., "Finish the homework now! ") - Typically used for commands or requests.

- Giving instructions

- Offering advice

- Making a wish on behalf of someone else.

- Extending an invitation

Declarative (e.g., "You finished the homework .") - Typically used for statements.

- Give an opinion

- Provide an explanation

- Give facts

Exclamative (e.g Oh, how lovely! ) - Express strong feelings and opinions, such as surprise, excitement, and anger

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Directness in Requests: Both English and Vietnamese allow for direct requests. However, the level of politeness and indirectness can vary based on cultural context.
Use of Indirection: Indirect speech acts are prevalent in both languages, but English often maintains a more straightforward phrasing while Vietnamese may incorporate more culturally nuanced expressions.
Cultural Context: While both languages employ speech acts similarly, Vietnamese might place higher emphasis on hierarchical and familial honors which influences how requests or commands are phrased compared to English.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

Direct Speech Act: When a question is asked directly with the intention of obtaining a specific answer (e.g., "Did you ...?" or "Is she ...?").

Example: "Is she wearing a wig?"

Indirect Speech Act: When an interrogative structure is used for a different purpose than asking a question, often to make requests or statements indirectly (e.g. "Can you pass the salt?").

Example: "Can you pass the salt?"

Pragmatic Principle: The understanding that effective communication relies on recognizing not just the words and structure, but also the speaker's intention and the context in which the utterance occurs.

Example: "You left the door open." (used to imply a request to close it).

Comparison Between English and Vietnamese

Direct Speech Acts: Both English and Vietnamese utilize similar structures for direct questions, maintaining a clear relationship between the form and intended meaning.
Indirect Speech Acts: While both languages often change the context of an interrogative to imply requests, the phrasing may differ slightly based on cultural communication styles. Vietnamese speakers may add politeness markers that are less common in English.
Pragmatic Understanding: Recognition of the context surrounding speech acts is essential in both languages, emphasizing that the intent goes beyond mere word recognition. However, cultural nuances in understanding politeness and indirectness may vary between English and Vietnamese speakers.

CÂU HỎI ÔN TẬP

docs.google.com/document/d/1vnuvyx6T7wrcxogqn3hRhMEykmEZ_K09AGYHpvCqquE/edit?tab=t.0

STUDY QUESTIONS

1 What kinds of deictic expressions are used here (e.g. We = person deixis)?

(a) We went there last summer.

(b) I’m busy now so you can’t stay here. Come back later.

**(a) We went there last summer.**

- "We" = **Person deixis** (refers to the speaker and others included).
- "There" = **Place deixis** (refers to a distant location).
- "Last summer" = **Time deixis** (refers to a specific point in time).

**(b) I’m busy now so you can’t stay here. Come back later.**

- "I" = **Person deixis** (refers to the speaker).
- "You" = **Person deixis** (refers to the addressee).
- "Now" = **Time deixis** (refers to the current time).
- "Here" = **Place deixis** (refers to the speaker's location).
- "Later" = **Time deixis** (refers to a future time).

2 How do we describe the pragmatic difference between the pair here and now versus there and then?

- **Here and now** are typically used to reference the speaker's immediate spatial and temporal context, emphasizing proximity and immediacy.
- **There and then** are used to refer to something more distant, either spatially or temporally, implying a sense of separation or remoteness.

3 What kind of inference is involved in interpreting each of these utterances?

(a) T E A C H E R : You can borrow my Shakespeare.

(b) WA I T E R : The ham sandwich left without paying.

(d) D E N T I S T : My eleven-thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.

(a) TEACHER: You can borrow my Shakespeare.**

- Inference: The teacher owns a book or collection of works by Shakespeare.

(b) WAITER: The ham sandwich left without paying.**

- Inference: "The ham sandwich" refers to a customer who ordered a ham sandwich, using the order to identify the person.

- Inference: "The hernia" refers to a patient in room 5 who has a hernia.

(d) DENTIST: My eleven-thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.**

- Inference: "My eleven-thirty" refers to the 11:30 a.m. appointment or patient.

4 What are the anaphoric expressions in the following sentence?

Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she advised him to take the pills three times a day until the pain went away.

- **Anaphoric expressions**:

- "He" refers to Andy.
- "Her" refers to Dr. Foster.
- "His" refers to Andy's.
- "She" refers to Dr. Foster.
- "Him" refers to Andy.
- "The pills" refers to the medicine.
- "The pain" refers to Andy's headaches.

5 What is the technical term for the phrase an old car in its relationship with it in the following utterance? I have an old car, but it runs great.

The phrase **"an old car"** is the **antecedent**, and **"it"** is the **anaphor**. The relationship is **anaphoric**.

6 What is one obvious presupposition of a speaker who says:

(a) Your clock isn’t working.

(b) Where did he find the money?

(d) The king of France is bald.

(a) Your clock isn’t working.**

- Presupposition: You have a clock.

(b) Where did he find the money?**

- Presupposition: He found the money.

- Presupposition: We bought that car.

(d) The king of France is bald.**

- Presupposition: There is a king of France (which is factually untrue today, so this is a case of a false presupposition).

7 How many pragmatic markers are used in the following interaction?

M A N A : Why does everyone think he’s a genius, I mean, he gets things wrong like the rest of us, doesn’t he?

M A K A : Well, I don’t know, he got that award last year for innovation, you know, the Brill award, at the convention in New York, I think it was.

Pragmatic markers used:

- "I mean" (used to clarify or modify the speaker’s statement).
- "Well" (used to preface a response).
- "You know" (used to ensure shared knowledge or agreement).
- "I think" (hedging, expressing uncertainty).

There are **4 pragmatic markers**.

8 In these examples, is the speaker appealing to positive or negative face?

(a) If you’re free, there’s going to be a party at Yuri’s place on Saturday.

(b) Let’s go to the party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. Everyone’s invited.

(a) If you’re free, there’s going to be a party at Yuri’s place on Saturday.**

- This is appealing to **negative face** (respecting the listener's freedom to choose).

(b) Let’s go to the party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. Everyone’s invited.**

- This is appealing to **positive face** (emphasizing inclusion and solidarity).

9 Someone stands between you and the TV set you’re watching, so you decide to say one of the following. Identify which would be direct or indirect speech acts.

(a) Move!

(b) You’re in the way.

(d) Please get out of the way.

(a) Move!**

- Direct speech act (a clear command).

(b) You’re in the way.**

- Indirect speech act (stating a fact, implying a request).

- Indirect speech act (a polite request in the form of a question).

(d) Please get out of the way.**

- Direct speech act (a polite command).

10 In terms of speech acts, how would you explain the unusual nature of this interaction between a visitor to a city, with luggage, looking lost, and a man in the street outside the railway station.

V I S I T O R : Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is?

R E S I D E N T : Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away)

- The **unusual nature** comes from the fact that the resident’s response only acknowledges knowing where the hotel is, without providing the expected follow-up (i.e., giving directions). It is a **non-cooperative response** and does not fulfill the typical conversational expectation of helping someone who asks for directions.

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