Darwin believed that early humans used music to express their emotions before developing language.
The ability to produce sound and simple vocal patterning is an ancient trait shared with other vertebrates.
We do not know how language originated, but we suspect that spoken language developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago.
There is no direct evidence or artifacts from this period that could tell us how language was used in the early stages.
Herodotus' experiment: An Egyptian pharaoh named Psammetichus raised two newborn babies in isolation, and they reportedly uttered the Phrygian word "bekos" (meaning "bread").
King James' experiment: The King of Scotland raised children in silence, and they reportedly started speaking Hebrew.
Akbar's experiment: The Mogul emperor raised children in silence, and they produced no speech at all.
Real-world outcome: Children raised without human language exposure in their early years grow up with no language at all.
The human auditory system is developed before birth, allowing humans to recognize and identify sounds.
This ability to recognize sounds leads to the connection between a sound and the thing producing that sound.
For example, a person might hear a bird chirping and associate it with the bird making the sound.
The "bow-wow" theory suggests that early humans imitated these natural sounds to create primitive words.
THE "BOW-WOW" THEORY
Early humans developed language by imitating the sounds of natural objects.
Examples of onomatopoeic words in English: "cuckoo", "splash", "buzz", "hiss", "screech", "bow-wow".
This theory is difficult to apply to soundless things (e.g. "low branch") and abstract concepts (e.g. "truth").
The theory assumes that language is only a set of words used as "names" for things, which is a simplification.
THE "POOH-POOH" THEORY
The "pooh-pooh" theory suggests that speech developed from instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances.
Examples of interjections include "Ouch!", "Ah!", "Phew!", "Wow!", or "Yuck!".
Interjections are typically produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is opposite of the normal way we produce spoken language.
Early humans likely lived in groups for protection and survival.
Communication is necessary for group survival and organization.
Humans and primates use similar sounds, such as grunts and calls, for social interaction.
However, primates do not have the capacity for speech.
Upright posture and breathing patterns: Humans have a unique breathing pattern, with 90% exhalation and 10% quick in-breaths, which allows for longer articulations while speaking.
Reconstructed vocal tract of a Neanderthal man: The fossilized remains of a Neanderthal man suggest that some consonant-like sound distinctions were possible around 60,000 years ago.
Streamlined physical features: Certain physical features found in modern humans are also found in other primates, but are more developed in humans. These features may be clues that humans had the capacity for speech.
TEETH AND LIPS
Human teeth are adapted for grinding and chewing food, unlike those of apes.
Human lips are highly flexible and help in producing specific sounds.
MOUTH AND TONGUE
The human mouth is relatively small compared to other primates (e.g. gorillas).
The human mouth can be opened and closed rapidly (e.g. unlike sloths).
The human tongue is shorter, thicker, and more muscular than other primates (e.g. chimps).
Humans can close off the airway through the nose to create more air pressure in the mouth (e.g. unlike dogs).
The unique combination of these features allows for a wider range of sounds and a more rapid and powerful delivery of sounds (e.g. like a strong, clear voice).
LARYNX AND PHARYNX
The human larynx is positioned differently from other primates.
The upright posture of humans caused the larynx to drop to a lower position.
This created a longer pharynx above the vocal folds, which acts as a resonator for increased range and clarity of sounds.
The lower position of the human larynx makes it more possible for food to get stuck in the windpipe.
According to the physical adaptation view, language likely developed from physical adaptations that humans already possessed.
Producing speech sounds was one function that was superimposed on existing anatomical features, such as teeth and lips, which were previously used for other purposes.
Manual gestures may have been a precursor of language, similar to how hands and tool making developed.
By about two million years ago, humans had developed preferential right-handedness and had become capable of making stone tools.
THE HUMAN BRAIN
The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for complex vocalization (speaking) and object manipulation (making or using tools).
The development of language may have evolved from the same brain circuits used for tool-making.
Language structure may have developed from a naming ability by consistently using one type of noise and combining it with another specific noise to build a complex message.
The human brain is relatively small at birth, but develops rapidly in the first few years. Babies are born with the ability to breathe and drink at the same time, but later develop the ability to walk and talk.
Some scholars believe that the rapid development of language in children may be due to an innate capacity for language, rather than just small physical adaptations over time.
Even children who are born deaf and do not develop speech can become fluent sign language users very early in life, suggesting that the language capacity is innate and not tied to a specific variety of language.
THE INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS
The innateness hypothesis suggests that language is linked to genetic changes in humans.
These changes may have led to enhanced brain development and the emergence of language.
Examples of genetic changes include the ability to digest starch and increase glucose production.
These changes may have created the conditions for a bigger and more complex brain to develop.
The search for the "language gene" is ongoing, with FOXP2 being one example of a gene thought to play a role in language production.
1 When did written language develop?
Written language developed around 3500-4000 BCE in Mesopotamia, with the invention of cuneiform writing.
2 When can we say the human auditory system has begun working?
The human auditory system is thought to have developed around 40,000-50,000 years ago, based on fossil evidence and studies of hearing in primates.
3 What percentage of human breathing while speaking normally consists of in-breaths?
It is estimated that about 75% of human breathing while speaking normally consists of in-breaths.
4 What is the difference between the position of the larynx in humans and other primates?
The position of the larynx (voice box) in humans is lower than in other primates, which allows for a greater range of vocalizations and speech sounds.
5 Why are interjections such as Ooh! or Yuck! considered to be unlikely sources of human speech sounds?
Interjections such as "Ooh!" or "Yuck!" are considered unlikely sources of human speech sounds because they are not part of the grammatical structure of language, and are more likely to be reflexive responses to stimuli.
6 What is the basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory of language origin?
The "bow-wow" theory of language origin suggests that language developed from imitations of natural sounds, such as animal noises or musical sounds.
7 Why is it difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must have been the original human language?
It is difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must have been the original human language because there is no evidence to support this claim, and it is unlikely that a single language would have been spoken by all humans.
8 Where is the pharynx and how did it become an important part of human sound production?
The pharynx is the part of the throat that lies between the nasal and oral cavities, and it plays an important role in sound production by allowing for the manipulation of air and vocal cords.
9 Why do you think that young deaf children who become fluent in sign language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis?
Young deaf children who become fluent in sign language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis because it suggests that language is an innate ability that can develop even in the absence of auditory input.
10 With which of the six “sources” would you associate the following quotation?
The quotation would likely be associated with the "bow-wow" theory of language origin, as it suggests that language developed from imitations of natural sounds.