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The human vocal tract is capable of producing a wide range of speech sounds.
Despite physical differences between individuals, language does not require specific specifications for vocal tract size and shape.
Every individual has a unique vocal tract, resulting in potentially millions of ways to pronounce a single word.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages agree that the human vocal tract is capable of producing a wide range of speech sounds and that every individual has a unique vocal tract.
The comparison between English and Vietnamese is mainly related to the physical differences between individuals. In English, it is mentioned that there are potentially millions of ways to pronounce a single word due to physical differences between individuals. In Vietnamese, it does not provide a specific number or example, but it still emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual's vocal tract.
PHONOLOGY
PHONOLOGY
Individual vocal tracts can produce speech sounds in different ways, but phonology helps us recognize and interpret words consistently.
The study of phonology is concerned with the abstract representation of sounds in our minds, rather than their physical articulation.
Examples of [t] sounds in different words (tar, star, writer, butter, eighth) may be pronounced differently in actual speech, but are represented in the same way in phonology.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages recognize that individual differences in pronunciation can occur, but phonology is a more abstract concept in English than in Vietnamese.
English has a more complex system of phonology than Vietnamese, with more distinct sounds and sound combinations.
PHONEMES
PHONEMES
Phoneme: A distinct sound type that is represented by a single written symbol.
Token: A specific spoken version of a phoneme.
Examples
English: The words "pat" and "bat" have different meanings due to the difference between the phonemes /p/ and /b/.
Vietnamese: The words "mẹ" (mother) and "mê" (to be trapped) have different meanings due to the difference between the phonemes /mɛ/ and /mɛː/.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
In English, the contrastive property of phonemes is demonstrated through words like "fat" and "vat", where changing the sound from /f/ to /v/ changes the meaning. In Vietnamese, a similar example is words like "mẹ" (mother) and "mè" (older sister), where changing the sound from /m/ to /mᶕ/ (a unique Vietnamese sound) changes the meaning.
Vietnamese has a more complex system of tones, which can affect the meaning of words. For example, the word "ma" can mean "mother" (flat tone), "ma" can mean "horse" (rising tone), or "má" can mean "old woman" (falling tone). This is not a property of phonemes in English, where the meaning of words is not affected by tone.
NATURAL CLASSES
Phonemes can be distinguished by their features
Features can be represented by plus (+) and minus (-) signs
Phonemes that share certain features tend to behave phonologically in similar ways
Phonemes that have different features may not belong to the same natural class
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
There is no direct comparison between English and Vietnamese on these key points, as this information is specific to English phonemes. However, it is worth noting that Vietnamese has a different set of phonemes and sound features than English. For example, Vietnamese has a series of tones that distinguish words with different meanings, whereas English does not have tones. Additionally, Vietnamese has a larger number of vowels and diphthongs than English.
PHONES AND ALLOPHONES
PHONES AND ALLOPHONES
Allophones: different versions of a sound type regularly produced in actual speech
Phones: phonetic units, represented in square brackets []
Allo-: prefix meaning "one of a closely related set"
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
While both languages have phonemes and allophones, the examples provided are specific to English and may not directly translate to Vietnamese. However, the concept of allophones as variations of a phoneme applies to both languages.
In Vietnamese, the phoneme /t/ is pronounced as [t] or [ʔ] (depending on the position in the word), but there are no examples of aspirated [tʰ], flapped [ɾ], or dentalized [t̪] phones like in English.
Allophonic rules for /t/:
+ /t/ -> [th]: word-initially and in front of stressed syllables
e.g: table, treat, attend, until, attack
+ /t/ -> [ɾ]: intervocalically, when second vowel is unstressed
e.g: better, Betty, butter, cutie, buttocks
+ /t/ -> [t']: word-finally
e.g: set, right, caught, pit
+ /t/ -> [t]: elsewhere
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION
When two allophones of a phoneme occur in different places in words, they are said to be in complementary distribution
Complementary distribution means that the two allophones never overlap in their usage
Examples
English: The phoneme /t/ has two allophones, [t] and [θ] (th). The [t] pronunciation is used word-initially, as in "tar", while the [θ] pronunciation is used after another consonant in initial position, as in "star".
Vietnamese: The phoneme /t/ has two allophones, [t] and [tʰ]. The [t] pronunciation is used word-initially, as in "tài" (intelligent), while the [tʰ] pronunciation is used after another consonant in initial position, as in "trăm" (hundred).
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages have allophones of a phoneme, where the pronunciation of the phoneme changes depending on its position in the word.
In English, /t/ with aspiration is used word-initially, but not after another consonant in initial position. In Vietnamese, the sound /t/ is always pronounced with aspiration at the beginning of a word, but not after another consonant.
Both languages demonstrate complementary distribution of allophones, where the places where the allophones occur never overlap.
MINIMAL PAIRS AND SETS
Minimal pair: a pair of words that differ only in one phoneme
e.g: top - cop, work - worn, cheap - chip
Minimal set: a set of words that can be differentiated by changing one phoneme
e.g: cheat-meat-peat-beat
Examples
English: fan and van (minimal pair)
Vietnamese: (mẹ) and (bẹ) (minimal pair)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
While both languages use minimal pairs and sets to test phonemic distinctions, Vietnamese has a more complex system due to its tonal system.
Vietnamese minimal pairs often involve differences in tone, whereas English minimal pairs typically involve differences in consonant or vowel sounds.
PHONOTACTICS
PHONOTACTICS
Minimal sets can help us identify patterns in sound combinations in a language.
Some sound combinations are not possible in a language because they do not obey certain constraints on the sequence or position of phonemes.
These constraints are part of every speaker's phonological knowledge.
To understand these constraints, we need to consider the basic structure of the syllable, which is a larger phonological unit that consists of a combination of phonemes.
Examples
English: (vig, lig) are not possible words in English because they do not obey the constraints on the sequence or position of phonemes.
Vietnamese: (ví, lí) are not possible words in Vietnamese because they do not obey the constraints on the sequence or position of phonemes.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
English has phonotactics that constrain the sequence or position of phonemes, making certain combinations of sounds impossible.
Vietnamese has no such constraints, allowing for any combination of sounds to be possible.
This difference in phonotactics affects the vocabulary and pronunciation of each language, with English being more restrictive and Vietnamese being more flexible.
SYLLABLES
SYLLABLES
Onset: One or more consonants that come before the vowel in a syllable.
Nucleus: The vowel sound in a syllable.
Coda: One or more consonants that come after the vowel in a syllable.
Open syllable: A syllable with an onset and a nucleus, but no coda.
Closed syllable: A syllable with an onset, a nucleus, and a coda.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages require a vowel or vowel-like sound in a syllable.
Both languages have open and closed syllables, but the structure of closed syllables may differ.
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Consonant clusters can consist of more than one consonant and can be used as onset or coda in a syllable.
Examples of consonant clusters include /st/ in "stop" and "post", and /bl/ in "black" and "bread".
English can have larger onset clusters, such as /spl/ in "splat" and "stress", which consist of three initial consonants.
The pattern of larger onset clusters is: /s/ followed by a voiceless stop (/p/, /t/, /k/) and then a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/, /w/).
Examples
English: stop, post, black, bread, trick, twin, flat, throw
Vietnamese: (stop), (post), (black), (bread), (trick), (twin), (flat), (throw)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese on key points
English allows for larger consonant clusters, including three consonant sounds at the onset of a syllable (CCC), whereas Vietnamese only allows for two consonant sounds in a cluster.
English has more flexibility in the types of consonant sounds that can be used in clusters, including liquids (/l/, /r/) and glides (/w/), whereas Vietnamese tends to use stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and nasals (/m/, /n/) in its clusters.
Examples:
CVC: map, hat, log...
CCVCC: plant, flask, blimp,...
CCCVCCC: strange, flights, splend
CCCCVCCCC: lengths, splurge,....
COARTICULATION EFFECTS
COARTICULATION EFFECTS
In English, large consonant clusters may be reduced in casual conversational speech, especially in the middle of a word. (Example: "strength" might be pronounced as "strenk" instead of "stren-th")
Coarticulation is a natural process in speech production, where speakers move quickly from one sound to the next without stopping.
Speech is not always pronounced carefully in slow motion, but rather is often fast and spontaneous.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Consonant clusters: Vietnamese also has consonant clusters, but they are not as common as in English. For example: "tr" in "trời" (sky) or "ch" in "chế" (to make).
Coarticulation: Both English and Vietnamese speech involve coarticulation, but the extent to which it occurs may vary depending on the individual speaker and the context of the conversation.
ASSIMILATION
Assimilation is a process in speech production where one sound segment is copied by another, making speech production more efficient and easier.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
In both English and Vietnamese, assimilation occurs when two sound segments occur in sequence. However, the direction and type of assimilation may differ between languages. For example, in English, voiced sounds can become voiceless due to assimilation with voiceless sounds, as seen in the example of "have" becoming more like "f" in the phrase "I have to go". In Vietnamese, assimilation can occur in the opposite direction, where voiceless sounds can become voiced due to the influence of a preceding vowel sound.
NASALIZATION
In isolation, [ɪ] and [æ] are pronounced without nasal quality. However, in everyday speech, anticipation of the final nasal consonant can make it easier to go into nasalized articulation in advance (e.g. pin and pan).
Nasalization is a regular feature of English, and a phonological rule can be stated: "Any vowel becomes nasal whenever it immediately precedes a nasal."
Assimilation occurs in various contexts, such as when the word "can" is pronounced as [kæn] in isolation, but as [aɪkəŋɡoʊ] in the phrase "I can go."
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Vietnamese also has assimilation processes, but they are more complex and varied than those in English.
Vietnamese has a more prominent use of diacritics (e.g. ă, ằ, ẳ) to represent vowel sounds, whereas English uses the tilde (~) specifically for nasalization.
Vietnamese has a more nuanced system of vowel pronunciation, with different tones and vowel combinations that affect the meaning of words.
ELISION
In certain environments, such as before a nasal sound and after a nasal sound, the /d/ sound is not pronounced.
The /t/ sound is a common casualty of elision in consonant clusters, especially in coda position.
Vowels can also disappear through elision, resulting in the omission of entire syllables.
Elision can occur in casual conversation, producing different pronunciations from deliberate pronunciation.
Examples
English: "you and me" (no /d/ sound), "friendship" (no /d/ sound)
Vietnamese: không có âm /d/ trong từ "you and me" (no /d/ sound), không có âm /d/ trong từ "hữu nghị" (no /d/ sound)
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both English and Vietnamese have rules and exceptions for pronunciation and elision.
English has a more complex system of consonant clusters and elision patterns, which can result in different pronunciations depending on the context.
Vietnamese has a simpler system of consonant clusters and elision patterns, but still has its own set of rules and exceptions for pronunciation.
NORMAL SPEECH
Phonological processes are natural and common in everyday speech.
Consistently avoiding these processes would result in unnatural-sounding speech.
The purpose of studying phonological processes is to understand the patterns and regularities underlying language use.
Examples
English: The word "cat" becomes "tad" when pronounced quickly due to assimilation.
Vietnamese: The word "cánh" (wing) becomes "kánh" when pronounced with a nasalization process.
Comparison between English and Vietnamese
Both languages exhibit assimilation, nasalization, and elision in their normal speech patterns.
However, Vietnamese tends to use nasalization more frequently than English, particularly with vowel sounds.
English tends to use elision more frequently than Vietnamese, particularly with consonant sounds.
STUDY QUESTIONS
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 In French, the words /bo/ for beau (“handsome”) and /bõ/ for bon
(“good”) seem to have different vowels. Are these two vowels allophones
or phonemes in French?
The words /bo/ and /bõ/ are not distinct phonemes in French. The vowel quality is the same, but the nasalization of the vowel is what changes the pronunciation. So, the vowels are allophones, not phonemes.
2 Which English phoneme has the features: –voice, +velar, +stop?
The English phoneme with the features -voice, +velar, +stop is /k/.
3 What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would
normally be pronounced with one?
kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top
An aspirated sound is a sound that is produced with a puff of air, often indicated by the symbol 'h'. In the given options, the word "kill" would normally be pronounced with an aspirated /k/ sound.
4 Does this phrase (big black bag) contain a minimal pair, a minimal set, or
neither?'
The phrase "big black bag" contains a minimal pair, as the word "big" can be pronounced differently depending on the following word.
5 Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?
ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, tap, pen, chain, vote, bet,
far, bun, goat, heel, sane, tale, vet
The words that would be treated as minimal pairs are:
* ban, fan
* pat, tap
* bell, sell
* pit, fit
* heat, eat
* vet, bet
* goat, boat
* heel, feel
* tale, sale
6 What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?
Phonotactics refers to the rules governing how sounds are combined in a language.
7 In the pronunciation of track, which sound(s) would be the nucleus?
The nucleus in the pronunciation of "track" would be the sound /ɑ/.
8 What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?
An open syllable is a syllable that ends with a vowel, whereas a closed syllable is one that ends with a consonant.
9 Is the nasal consonant in the everyday pronunciation of I can go alveolar
or velar?
The nasal consonant in the everyday pronunciation of "I can go" is likely to be alveolar.
10 Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most
likely to be affected by elision?
(a) government (b) postman (c) pumpkin (d) sandwich (e) victory
The segments most likely to be affected by elision in the given words are:
* (a) government: /v/ and /r/ may be elided
* (b) postman: /p/ and /t/ may be elided
* (c) pumpkin: /p/ and /k/ may be elided
* (d) sandwich: /s/ and /t/ may be elided
* (e) victory: /v/ and /r/ may be elided
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