Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

DEVELOPERS

Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs who built on the personality typology research of Carl Jung

BACKGROUND

Much of the theory behind the MBTI is explained in Myers' book, Gifts Differing. This section summarizes much of that chapter.

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was created by Isabel Briggs Myers. Myers was the daughter of Katharine Cook, who had an "admiration of Jungian typology" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. xviii), and Lyman Briggs, an influential scientist during the time "American science was in swaddling clothes and [he] became a dominant figure during the first half of the twentieth century in establishing science as a crucial force in the halls of government" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. xviii). Isabel was inspired to create the type indicator by "the suffering and tragedies of the war [World War I] [...] to do something that might help people understand each other and avoid destructive conflicts" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. xviii). Before the test was actually published in 1962, Myers began "developing an item pool that would tap the attitudes, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors of the different psychological types as she and her mother had come to understand them" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. xviii).

The test was "developed to classify people into type categories (e.g., classification as an extravert, an introvert, or, in those cases where the two tendencies are equal, "indeterminate") which would have real meaning" (Salter, Evans, & Forney, 2005, pg. 287). The use of these scales is based on "the way people prefer to use their minds, specifically, the way they perceive and the way they make judgments" (Myers & Myers, 1990. pg. 1). In Myers' theory, perceiving is the process of becoming aware of things while judgments is the process of coming to conclusions about those perceptions (Myers and Myers, 1990, pg. 1) According to Myers, there are two ways of perceiving and two ways of judging and these are based on Jung's work.

One of Myers' scales, or dichotomy (as Jung described them) is SN, or Sensing-Intuition. Those who prefer to perceive through sensing, gain awareness of things through their senses. In contrast, some prefer to perceive through intuition, "which is indirect perception by way of the unconscious, incorporating ideas or associations that the unconscious tacks on to perceptions coming from outside" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. 2). The two ways of judging, or another dichotomy, are thinking and feeling (TF). Those who prefer to judge their world by thinking use a logical process and impersonal findings, while those who prefer to make judgments by feeling give things personal or subjective value in order to form opinions about them. According to Myers' theory, either type of perception can pair with either type of judgment. Each combination creates a different kind of personality.

There is also a preference towards Introversion or Extraversion (EI). Introverts are concerned with their inner world of concepts and ideas while Extraverts are more concerned with their outer world of people and things. It should be noted that these two preferences are "completely independent of the SN and TF preferences, extraverts and introverts may have any of the four combinations of perception and judgment" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. 7). The last dichotomy is the Judgment-Perception preference. Myers writes, "although people must of course use both perception and judgment [as suggested by the different types of both in the SN and TF dichotomies], both cannot be used at the same moment" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. 8).

In Myers' book, Gifts Differing, she writes in a summary of the four preferences, "how much excellence people actually achieve depends in part on their energy and their aspirations, but according to type theory, the kind of excellence toward which they are headed is determined by the inborn preferences that direct them at each fork in the road" (1990, pg. 8). Although this is rather circular logic, a person will only become "proficient" in their type if they work at it, but there is a predisposition that determines whether they will practice and use their "type."

In keeping with the theme of "proficiency" of a type, Myers suggests that people develop a dominant process or way of perceiving and judging the world based on the make-up of their type. Myers asserts that a person can be either perception-dominant or judgment-dominant depending on which particular preference* a person prefers (out of the SN and TF dichotomies). Intuition and sensing are perception-dominated preferences and thinking and feeling are judgment-dominated preferences. According to the theory, each person has one preference from each dichotomy, but a person will "naturally give [one] the right of way and subordinate [the other] to it" (Myers & Myers, 1990, pg. 10). This type of dominance will generally determine the P or J portion of a person's type.

In addition to people having dominant processes, they also have auxiliary processes to complement the dominant one. Myers writes, "if the dominant process is a judging one, the auxiliary process will be perceptive: Either sensing or intuition can supply sound material for judgments. If the dominant process is perceptive, the auxiliary process will be a judging one: Either thinking or feeling can give continuity of aim. If a person has no useful development of an auxiliary process, the absence is likely to be obvious. An extreme perceptive with no judgment is all sail and no rudder. An extreme judging type is all form and no content" (1990, pg. 11).

*The word "preference" is used as a way to describe one half of a dichotomy here. For example, S is a preference of the SN dichotomy.

Criticisms:

Pittinger, in his article, "Cautionary Comments Regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator," uses the data from several sources in the psychology field that include studies on personality testing to critique the MBTI. One criticism is of the results for many "test takers." Pittinger reminds the reader that since the MBTI is comprised of dichotomies and a person can only fall into one category per dichotomy, it is " implie[d] that the distribution of scores should be bimodal, with greater relative difference between the two preference types compared with the variance of scores within each type. In addition, the nature of the type preference predicts that few individuals should score at the midpoint of the scale. Although bimodality appears to be an essential characteristic of the distributions of scores, it is conspicuously absent" (2005, pg. 213).

Another criticism is that of the test-retest ability of the MBTI, or the consistency of "type" amongst people who have retaken the test. Pittinger writes that he found an, "analysis indicated that a large portion of their participants received different type profiles when retested" (2005, pg. 214). Pittinger also found a study that showed "across a 5-week test-retest interval, 50% of the participants received different classification on one or more of the scales" as well as research that indicated "Myers et al. (1998) reported that 35% of individuals had a different four-letter type score after a 4-week interval" (2005, pg. 214).

RECOMMENDATIONS/APPLICATIONS:

Isabel Briggs, Myers' inspiration for creating the MBTI, still translates to the reason for its use today. The indicator is primarily concerned with determining individual personality types; it is only when those results are studied can their applications be determined. As we have observed in the articles about academic performance (see below), information about personality types can be used to create lessons that speak to students with different learning styles. Students can also get an idea rather early in their academic careers what type of job situation may be the best fit for them (through their academic advisors). The MBTI results can also help these advisors to create more tailored advising programs according to different personality types.

In business organizations, personality type information can be used to resolve conflict; the information obtained from the test can identify which organization members may have clashing personality types. The simple identification of these conflicts can enable discussion on how to best handle them. The MBTI can also be used to form the most effective groups or teams. Forming teams that consist of similar or complementary personality types may be able to minimize potential conflict before it even emerges.

REFERENCES:

Myers, I.B. & Myers, P.B. (1990). Gifts differing. (10th anniversary ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

Pittenger, D. (2005). Cautionary comments regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 57(3), 210-221. doi:10.1037/1065-9293.57.3.210. Retrieved on December 1, 2010.

Salter, D., Evans, N., & Forney, D. (2006). A Longitudinal Study of Learning Style Preferences on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Learning Style Inventory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 173-184. doi:10.1353/csd.2006.

REFERENCES:

Myers, I.B. & Myers, P.B. (1990). Gifts differing. (10th anniversary ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

Pittenger, D. (2005). Cautionary comments regarding the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 57(3), 210-221. doi:10.1037/1065-9293.57.3.210. Retrieved on December 1, 2010.

Salter, D., Evans, N., & Forney, D. (2006). A Longitudinal Study of Learning Style Preferences on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Learning Style Inventory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 173-184. doi:10.1353/csd.2006. 0022. Retrieved on December 1, 2010.

REFERENCES ~ Coding Spreadsheet - Web View

• DiRienzo, C., Das, J., Synn, W., Kitts, J., & McGrath, K. (2010). The relationship between MBTI® and academic performance: A study across academic disciplines. Journal of Psychological Type, 70(5), 53-66. Retrieved from PsycINFO database. Abstract: Several studies have considered the relationship between personality type and academic performance. These studies were generally narrow, as they considered only student major choice and academic performance in single course or in a single major. The present study reinvestigated the relationship between the MBTI® instrument, major choice, and performance across all academic disciplines at a medium-sized, private university. Judging types generally had higher average GPAs than Perceiving types, and, with the exception of Business students, all Introverted, Feeling, and Judging types had higher than average GPAs. (Abstract written by PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved),
• Lucas,D. Personality type (MBTI) relationship to performance and satisfaction in Web-based instruction (WBI). Ph.D. dissertation, North Carolina State University, United States -- North Carolina. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text.(Publication No. AAT 3269423). Abstract: The purpose of this study is to provide empirical data that reports the association between students' personality type preferences as understood by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality profile and their achievement and perception of satisfaction in web-based learning environments. Data were collected from two graduate level courses offered entirely online using the WebCT learning management system during one semester. The data of interest were extracted from the course information; MBTI profile (learning style), numeric end of course grade (performance), course evaluation (used for satisfaction indicator). The demographic subject profile information such as gender, ethnicity, and age were extracted from the MBTI profile database collection. Data analysis and generation were done using SAS software. For the given sample, the data show the MBTI scale preference for Thinking-Feeling make a statistically significant difference in the satisfaction ratings of Learner-to-Learner and Learner-to-Content interactions within Web-Based instructed (WBI) courses. Students with MBTI preference for Feeling rated their satisfaction with Learner-to-Learner and Learner-to-Content interactions in the WBI courses higher than those with Thinking preference. Satisfaction with Learner-to-Instructor interaction was not related to MBTI preference, but was statistically significantly different by age range. MBTI preference, age and gender did not make a difference in achievement as measured by end of course grade in the WBI courses. These findings suggests Web-Based instruction should ensure effective methods and strategies are used to accommodate student learning preference with regard to course interactions. (Abstract written by ProQuest)
• Salter, D., Evans, N., & Forney, D. (2006). A Longitudinal Study of Learning Style Preferences on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Learning Style Inventory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 173-184. doi:10.1353/csd.2006. 0022. Retrieved on December 1, 2010. Abstract: This article examines how Masters students' learning preferences change over time. The idea behind this research is "useful to the career development process by helping students understand the fit between personality and workplace demands. The research can also help to develop advising programs at universities.
• Toole, J. The academic performance of introverted and extroverted students in traditional and online business courses: An analysis based on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Ph.D. dissertation, Capella University, United States -- Minnesota. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text.(Publication No. AAT 3263167). Abstract: This study's purpose was to investigate if a relationship exists between a preference for either introversion or extroversion and academic performance when compared between online and traditional business courses. The study used a cross-sectional survey methodology to determine a student's type preference and then explore possible causal relationships involving introverted or extroverted preferences and academic performance measured in either traditional or online business courses. This study attempted to determine if a preference for introversion or extroversion is associated with academic performance as determined by course grades between two separate groups of students. The study included a total of 134 participants that came from a purposeful cross-sectional sample of students who had completed either online or traditional business courses (Introduction to Management or Introduction to Business Course) at a two-year college during the period January 2005 to June 2006. The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was utilized to determine preferences for introversion and extroversion. Six hypotheses were addressed utilizing various statistical tests. The results obtained from the statistical tests completed found insufficient evidence to conclude that a preference for introversion or extroversion had an impact on the academic performance of the individuals who participated in this study. The results of this study add to the knowledge base used by instructors (teaching online and traditional courses) administrators, instructional design, and distance (online) education. Recommendations for future studies are included. (Abstract written by ProQuest).