Evidence

Speakers need strong supporting materials to add credibility to their points and give the audience reasons to believe what they are saying.Although general statements lay out the speaker's position on the topic, the audience needs specific information so that they can believe what the speaker is saying and understand the points completely.

The reasons for using supporting materials are to clarify the main ideas of the speech, to reinforce the points the speaker wants to make, to highlight the connection between the audience and the points the speaker is making, and to personalize the ideas of the speech.

The best way to determine which statements need support is to examine the main points of the speech.

This is why it is important that you work from an outline when constructing a speech.

That way it will be clear to you what are your main points and what are your supporting points and you will be able to determine what points need clarification and support in order for the audience to understand or believe them.

Generally you will have come across all the supporting material you will need for your speech when you do the initial research during the Invention stage.

However, sometimes you will need to do additional research to find the information that you need.

The speaker must assess the appropriateness of the supporting materials based on the topic, the audience, and the occasion.Speakers must ensure that their supporting materials are accurate, current, and that they actually represent the points they are making.

They should use stories, examples, definition, and statistics that are appropriate for the audience and not too abstract or difficult for the audience to understand or that repeat knowledge the audience already has.

Supporting materials such as examples and quotes from experts should also be selected based on the occasion so that they fit in with the theme of the event.

The choice of supporting materials will be determined by what kind of appeal the speaker is trying to make.

Supporting materials can build ethos when they are from experts in the field or from highly credible sources.

The emotions of the audience can also be evoked by emotional stories and examples or by shocking statistics.

One reason for using evidence is to make the points of the speech meaningful to the audience by appealing to pathos.

Evidence will also help build logos because the audience will be less confused and be able to follow your argument or train of thought if you provide sufficient evidence for them to understand each point in your speech.

Choosing supporting materials

How to determine what supporting materials to use

Each speech topic, situation, and audience will require different supporting materials but the main consideration for using supporting materials is how will they build your ethos, pathos, and logos.

We use statistics, examples, and testimony to make the point clear and fill in the details for the audience.

Examples, testimony and even statistics can make clear to the audience how the topic relates to them and to their lives or they can serve to build the sense of community among the audience by highlighting values and experiences the audience members have in common.

The use of supporting materials also demonstrates to the audience the knowledge and personal involvement of the speaker with the subject.

This helps build ethos and pathos for the speaker

When supporting materials are needed most:

Speakers who have low credibility will need more supporting materials than others.

Student speeches usually require more supporting materials because they are generally not considered experts in their topic unless they have extensive experience and knowledge of the topic such as as a volunteer firefighter or experience raising animals on a farm.

The more controversial the topic, the more authoritative evidence will be required to support the speaker's points.

This kind of speech will benefit from statistics from credible sources and testimony from experts in the field.

Using emotional evidence in this speech may detract from the argument rather than enhance it. Abstract and complex ideas also need more evidence.

When the topic is difficult for the audience to comprehend or is removed from their experience the speaker needs to provide clear examples that will help the audience visualize the concept or help it to come alive for the speaker.

When the idea is complex the speaker may need to find evidence that breaks it down into parts that the audience can comprehend.

Often providing visual examples as well as testimony from others can make these things happen.

Examples also help the audience relate something that they are familiar with to the concepts that the speaker is discussing.

Supporting materials can be either qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative support materials include statistical or numerical information.

These can be complex such as results of a study or survey or they can be as simple as the age of a person or the distance between two points.

When statistics are complex or abstract it is advisable to make them meaningful to the audience by interpreting their meaning in terms the audience can understand.

One way to do this is to provide graphs and charts of the statistics.

Another is to relate the statistics to the audience such as, "60% of older Americans do not have sufficient retirement income."

That means that more than half of you in this room may be unable to enjoy your retirement because you will not have put enough money away to live comfortably.

Qualitative support materials include examples, quotes, stories, analogies, and descriptions of all sorts.

One advantage of using qualitative evidence is that it makes a lasting impact on the audience.

We are more likely to remember a story or example that had an impact on us than we are to remember statistics or numerical information.

Qualitative materials are more likely to engage the imagination of the audience -- thus the audience members are more prone to feel a personal connection to the information.

For example, if I tell the story of my childhood friend who was killed by a drunk driver, you will fill in the image in your mind of what a childhood friend is like and empathize with my feelings regarding the event.

This makes it more likely that you will remember the point and therefore it will be more probable that the change I am trying to accomplish in the audience will be more lasting.

Examples

Examples are used to clarify, reinforce, or personalize an idea or point.They can be factual or hypothetical.

They can be something the speaker knows first-hand or from a reliable source.

They can be brief or complex.

For example, in a speech about owning a dog the speaker could give examples of the responsibilities that come with it such as annual check-ups, vaccinations, and registration; which would be a list of brief examples. Or the speaker could give a personal story of how they learned the hard way to keep their dog on a leash when she got away and chased the neighbor's car.

Examples can also come from the lives of other people including from expert and reliable sources.

You can compare and contrast your examples such as comparing a personal example with one from someone else.

You can also present a series of examples, thus building the significance of the example and adding weight to your argument.

The use of examples gives the speaker the opportunity to provide vivid description and to use emotional language to engage the imagination of the audience and, thus, build pathos.

It is important to balance this aspect of the example with the speech goals.

It would be unfortunate if a speaker found a great example to support the point he/she wanted to make and then either spent too much time going into detail only to lose the focus of the audience or, on the other hand, failed to give sufficient details in the example to make the connection to the point clear or engage the emotions of the audience.

Some speakers use hypothetical examples in their speeches.

They are useful and effective in relating how a general principle can be directly applied or experienced.

When a speaker uses a hypothetical example it should be made clear to the audience that it is not factual but that it is a fair representation of what would be factual.

There are many reasons for presenting hypothetical examples such as when it is important to keep the identify of people confidential or when the example is of something that may happen in the future.

If you are going to give a speech comparing apples and oranges it would be helpful to have actual examples of apples and oranges as visual aids for the speech.

Stories

Stories are my favorite form of support!

Human beings have always told stories. For most of human history, stories were the primary form of recording and transmitting all knowledge including history and culture. I believe our brains are hardwired to respond to the telling of stories and they enhance a speech more than any other form of support.

Stories are particularly effective in building Pathos!

Here are some tips from Forbes Magazine about using stories in your speeches http://www.forbes.com/2010/05/12/public-speaking-stories-leadership-managing-speeches.html

Statistics

Statistics provide compelling evidence for your audience to believe your point.

Statistics always involve numbers and generally they need to be interpreted for the audience.

There are two kinds of statistics: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics indicate the properties of an event or object and describe the magnitude of its characteristics.

Descriptive statistics include such information as the number of drunk drivers stopped at police sobriety check-points on New Year's Eve or the speed of the winds experienced during a tornado.

Descriptive statistics help the audience to understand many aspects of a topic from the frequency of something occurring to the magnitude of the phenomena.

They help the audience to perceive the size and depth of the problem.

Descriptive statistics can be used to inform the listeners about such things as the calorie count per serving in a fast food meal or the medal count of the Olympic team.

They can be broken down to identify how many calories of the meal come from fat, carbohydrates, and protein or the number of bronze, silver and gold medals and the different sports in which they were won.

Inferential statistics are used to demonstrate trends and provide useful information about what may happen in the future.

Inferential statistics look at what has happened in the past and based on an analysis of a number of factors predict what will happen in the future.

An example of how inferential statistics are used is in the projections that the government makes each month on the changes in unemployment figures.

Depending on the time of year, certain economic indicators and other data the government is able to anticipate whether more or fewer people will be unemployed in the coming months.

Banks use inferential statistics to determine the likelihood of a person defaulting on a loan or if interest rates will rise or fall over a given time frame.

Unlike descriptive statistics inferential statistics are not certain as there are many unexpected or unforeseen events that influence the final outcome you are projecting.

Using statistics ethically is an important consideration in planning your speech.

The first consideration is whether the statistics come from a reliable and unbiased source.

For example if you were looking for statistics on the number of abortions performed in the state you might find figures on websites from religious organizations, websites from women's organizations, and government data.

The accuracy of the statistics depends on how they were collected and sampled and can be influenced by bias on the part of the people reporting them.

In the case of the statistics about abortions, if there is a wide discrepancy in the numbers reported it would be ethical to identify the high and low numbers and identify the sources of those numbers and the bias that may be skewing the numbers.

It would be unethical to use only the numbers which best reflected your point of view without identifying the variations in the numbers.

On the other hand if the statistics from a number of different sources are very similar it will give support to your point by identifying the agreement.

It is also important to understand how the statistics were collected and interpreted.

With the statistics about abortions you would need to know how the sample was selected and the data collected.

Were abortions in clinics the only numbers being recorded or did the sample include doctor's offices and hospitals?

Where was the sample taken and how were the results extrapolated?

Another consideration when using statistics is that they accurately represent what you are using them to describe.

For example, if you were to say the average temperature of New York City is 76 degrees Fahrenheit, would this statistic accurately describe the weather conditions in the city at any given time?

It would probably be more helpful to provide the average temperature for different months so the audience would have a more accurate understanding of the range of temperatures in winter or summer.

In addition, it is critical to cite the source of the statistics so your listeners can judge for themselves the validity of the sources.

It is also important to avoid overusing statistics.

The audience can be overwhelmed by too many numbers.

For the same reason it is also a good move to round off complicated statistics.

Making statistics meaningful is an important consideration when you decide to use numbers in your speech.

It is almost always helpful to provide charts and graphs of statistics you plan to use so that the audience can see the numbers.

It helps the speaker to be able to point out the relationship between the numbers when they are presented visually.

Translating abstract numbers into specifics is also helpful to the audience such as describing a location in terms of the size of a football field, or distance or size in terms that the audience is familiar with such as describing a tumor as the size of a walnut or a grapefruit or the distance as the same distance as from Boston to New York City or a city block.

Testimony

Testimony is the words and opinions of others which add ethos and pathos to your presentation when you use them to support your points.

Using the words of others help the audience to believe your position and makes your argument more persuasive.

The most prestigious testimony is that of experts and testimony of experts demonstrates that your position is supported by others.

When the audience is skeptical about your position expert testimony can help build ethos.

Testimony or quotes from people who are not experts in the field also has a place in public speaking.

Lay testimony provides a reference for your audience who can relate to the personal opinions of others who are like themselves or their friends and family.

The words of others can be quoted directly and accurately or they can be paraphrased.

It is best to paraphrase long quotes but if the quote is brief, more compelling than your own words, or more vivid or striking it is better to make the quotation exactly.

Here is an example of Richard Nixon using expert testimony to support his position.

When using quotations in your speeches it is important to ascertain that the source of the quote is reliable and that the quote is accurate.

The quote should reflect the intended meaning of the source as well as support the point you are making.

In other words, do not use a quotation out of context.

When using quotes it is also important to not just identify the source of the quotation but also to identify who the person is and why their opinion is relevant to your topic.

For example, if you were quoting your grandmother on childcare it would be helpful if you identified that she raised five children on her own and helped raise 24 grandchildren.

Or if you were to quote Dr. Spock on the same topic, identify that he was the author of numerous books on childcare and a leading expert on the subject in the 20th century.

When the audience is familiar with the qualifications of the person being quoted it is not necessary go into detail about them.

It would be enough to say that President John Kennedy once said "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country."

In this case it may not even be necessary to say that he made this statement in his inaugural address to the nation.

In fact, it may be enough to simply state, "A famous American once said, 'Ask not what your country can do for you..." because your audience may be so familiar with the quote already.

Identifying your Sources

Identifying the sources of your information

Quoting the words of other people without proper acknowledgment and using statistics, examples, or other factual information without identifying the source of the information is plagiarism.It is unethical and destroys your ethos. With written papers the source information is contained in a bibliography and there are notes in the paper which indicate the reference from which the information has been extracted.

When a speaker is delivering a speech the audience will not have access to a bibliography and so all the necessary information must be incorporated into the speech itself.

It is necessary to identify the source of any information which is not your own words whether it comes from books, newspapers, journals, television programs, websites, blogs, tweets, interviews or any other source.

You must succinctly identify the kind of source, the author or sponsoring organization, and when and where the information was published or posted.

This will help the audience to determine how to evaluate the information and will help to build the ethos of the speaker.

When you do not cite the sources of your information you not only fail to build credibility but the audience may begin to suspect you of plagiarism because they can see that you are using information from others and are not acknowledging the source of your information.

Plagiarism

Students often think that as long as they reword the information and do not use the exact words of the source they are not plagiarizing or they think that plagiarism is when you download a speech or paper in its entirety from another source.

While these acts are plagiarism it is also plagiarism if you fail to identify the source of information that you use in your speeches.

Plagiarism is an easy trap to fall into.

Most students do not take a speech written by another person and simply present that speech as though they thought it up themselves. (Although I have seen this done.)

However, students often go to two or three websites and cut and paste the information from these sites into a document and then present this as their own work. DO NOT CUT AND PASTE INFORMATION INTO YOUR OUTLINE.

The problem is not that it is wrong to use material from different sources but plagiarism occurs when you present the information without identifying the source.

When you present the ideas of others as your own it is plagiarism but when you present the words of others as evidence of your claims then they provide support for your points.

Plagiarism is unethical and can have serious negative consequences.

If you are discovered plagiarizing in college you may fail the course or the assignment.

If you are discovered plagiarizing in the business or the political sphere the consequences will be more severe.

In 2011 the German Defense Minister Karl Theodor zu Guttenberg, was found to have plagiarized his doctoral dissertation.

There was a huge scandal.

Here is a news report about the incident.

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