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Protect Your Swimming Pool With Pool Covers, Reap Perks Swimming pool covers are coming to be progressively popular amongst business swimming pool owners along with home swimming pool proprietors.
This is true for both indoor and also outside pool.
Swimming pool covers offer a great deal of benefits for any kind of swimming pool owner, several of which even translates to tangible and quantifiable worths.
Undoubtedly, a swimming pool cover is one essential swimming pool product that any type of pool owner ought to have.
There have actually been numerous reported sinking occurrences of kids and also even animals as a result of unguarded pool.
Having a swimming pool cover over your ignored swimming pool is very effective to stop crashes like these from happening.
The swimming pool cover is a veritable safety and security device.
It works as a straight fencing on your swimming pool, sealing it off from unintentional access by your kids, your pets, along with unwanted visitors.
Though there is still no alternative from proper supervision, a pool cover may in some way do this in your place when you are not around.
Swimming pool covers can save your life, and the life of the people you care about.
Apart from investing in safety and security, obtaining a pool cover for your swimming pool, as a matter of fact, conserves you cash.
Exactly how? A pool cover can save you as much as 70% on operating prices by lowering your pool's need for additional home heating devices, cosmetics water, water therapy chemicals, as well as cleansing as well as upkeep costs.
In the long run, your pool cover will pay for itself.
According to researches, swimming pools not secured by a pool cover can shed as long as 30% of their heat each day and greater than 10,000 litres of water, consisting of chemicals made use of to treat the water, all as a result of the natural procedure of evaporation.
Dissipation, amongst lots of other aspects, is generally in charge of the heat loss in swimming pool water.
It takes a remarkable amount of energy to evaporate water, subsequently taking a great deal of warmth out of your swimming pool water as well.
With making use of a pool cover, warm loss is lowered by obstructing dissipation as well as securing the warmth in.
Normally, there will be a significant reduction in your pool heating prices as your water thermostat might reduce the warmth supply from the central heating boiler during making use of the pool cover.
Likewise, locking more of the warm in with your swimming pool cover somehow expands your swimming period.
Your swimming pool continues to be cozy as well as welcoming for a a lot longer amount of time.
A swimming pool cover over your pool also significantly reduces the amount of power needed to aerate the pool space for interior swimming pools.
There will be little requirement for ventilation and also exhaust followers, enabling you to conserve more on air-heating price.
You are not only saved from big energy expenses, by obstructing dissipation, you likewise save on cosmetics water by as much as 50%, and chemicals for dealing with water by as high as 60%.
Loss of unpredictable chemicals like chlorine because of dissipation is also significantly minimized.
Researches show that about 5,000 gallons of water is saved, along with chemicals made use of to treat it annually if swimming pool owners will simply make use of swimming pool covers.
For indoor pools, less harsh sanitation chemicals launched into the air as a result of suppressed dissipation results to lowered dampness damage and also acidic rust on your building framework.
This also consists of components such as steel joints, windows and door structures, audio speakers, as well as others.
Pool covers also cut your cleaning time and also reduce swimming pool tools upkeep price.
Swimming pool covers deflect leaves, particles as well as dust out of your pool water.
Leaving your swimming pool water crystal clear for the longest time.
A swimming pool cover can additionally protect swimming pools from rough winter months components.
With a pool cover over your pool, the warmth of the swimming pool water is kept well inside and with the swimming pool cover additionally keeping the dust out, your swimming pool equipment lasts much longer due to the fact that it in fact works less.
Exterior and also interior swimming pool owners will certainly benefit from a pool cover.
Mostly, it can save lives as a safety and security tool.
And the financial rewards and benefits are just an added bonus offer.
Pool owners no more need to worry on just how to maximize their pool use and also keep it at its ace problem.
The trick is simply to use a swimming pool cover that best fits your pool and also your swimming requires.
Solar water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water heating using a solar thermal collector.
A variety of configurations is available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes.
SWHs are widely used for residential and some industrial applications.[1] A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later use.
SWH are active (pumped) and passive (convection-driven).
They use water only, or both water and a working fluid.
They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors.
They operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters.[2] In large-scale installations, mirrors may concentrate sunlight into a smaller collector.
As of 2017, global solar hot water thermal capacity is 472 GW and the market is dominated by China, the United States and Turkey.[3] Barbados, Austria, Cyprus, Israel and Greece are the leading countries by capacity per capita.[3] Records of solar collectors in the U.S.
date to before 1900,[4] involving a black-painted tank mounted on a roof.
In 1896 Clarence Kemp of Baltimore enclosed a tank in a wooden box, thus creating the first 'batch water heater' as they are known today.
Frank Shuman built the world's first solar thermal power station in Maadi, Egypt, using parabolic troughs to power a 45 to 52 kilowatts (60 to 70 horsepower) engine that pumped 23,000 litres (6,000 US gal) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields.
Flat-plate collectors for Solar water heating were used in Florida and Southern California in the 1920s.
Interest grew in North America after 1960, but especially after the 1973 oil crisis.
Solar power is in use in Australia, Canada, China, Germany, India, Israel, Japan, Portugal, Romania, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Israel, Cyprus and Greece are the per capita leaders in the use of Solar water heating systems supporting 30%–40% of homes.[5] Flat plate solar systems were perfected and used on a large scale in Israel.
In the 1950s a fuel shortage led the government to forbid heating water between 10 pm and 6 am.
Levi Yissar built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater and in 1953 he launched the NerYah Company, Israel's first commercial manufacturer of Solar water heating.[6] Solar water heaters were used by 20% of the population by 1967.
Following the energy crisis in the 1970s, in 1980 Israel required the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area).[7] As a result, Israel became the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita with 85% of households using solar thermal systems (3% of the primary national energy consumption),[8] estimated to save the country 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) of oil a year.[9] In 2005, Spain became the world's first country to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second (after Israel) to require the installation of Solar water heating systems, in 2006.[10] After 1960, systems were marketed in Japan.[4] Australia has a variety of national and state and regulations for solar thermal starting with MRET in 1997.[11][12][13] Solar water heating systems are popular in China, where basic models start at around 1,500 yuan (US$235), around 80% less than in Western countries for a given collector size.
At least 30 million Chinese households have one.
The popularity is due to efficient evacuated tubes that allow the heaters to function even under gray skies and at temperatures well below freezing.[14] The type, complexity and size of a Solar water heating system is mostly determined by: The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest.
The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.
Freeze protection measures prevent damage to the system due to the expansion of freezing transfer fluid.
Drainback systems drain the transfer fluid from the system when the pump stops.
Many indirect systems use antifreeze (e.g., propylene glycol) in the heat transfer fluid.
In some direct systems, collectors can be manually drained when freezing is expected.
This approach is common in climates where freezing temperatures do not occur often, but can be less reliable than an automatic system as it relies on an operator.
A third type of freeze protection is freeze-tolerance, where low pressure water pipes made of silicone rubber simply expand on freezing.
One such collector now has European Solar Keymark accreditation.
When no hot water has been used for a day or two, the fluid in the collectors and storage can reach high temperatures in all non-drainback systems.
When the storage tank in a drainback system reaches its desired temperature, the pumps stop, ending the heating process and thus preventing the storage tank from overheating.
Some active systems deliberately cool the water in the storage tank by circulating hot water through the collector at times when there is little sunlight or at night, losing heat.
This is most effective in direct or thermal store plumbing and is virtually ineffective in systems that use evacuated tube collectors, due to their superior insulation.
Any collector type may still overheat.
High pressure, sealed solar thermal systems ultimately rely on the operation of temperature and pressure relief valves.
Low pressure, open vented heaters have simpler, more reliable safety controls, typically an open vent.
Simple designs include a simple glass-topped insulated box with a flat solar absorber made of sheet metal, attached to copper heat exchanger pipes and dark-colored, or a set of metal tubes surrounded by an evacuated (near vacuum) glass cylinder.
In industrial cases a parabolic mirror can concentrate sunlight on the tube.
Heat is stored in a hot water storage tank.
The volume of this tank needs to be larger with solar heating systems to compensate for bad weather[clarification needed] and because the optimum final temperature for the solar collector[clarification needed] is lower than a typical immersion or combustion heater.
The heat transfer fluid (HTF) for the absorber may be water, but more commonly (at least in active systems) is a separate loop of fluid containing anti-freeze and a corrosion inhibitor delivers heat to the tank through a heat exchanger (commonly a coil of copper heat exchanger tubing within the tank).
Copper is an important component in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of its high heat conductivity, atmospheric and water corrosion resistance, sealing and joining by soldering and mechanical strength.
Copper is used both in receivers and primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks).[15] Another lower-maintenance concept is the 'drain-back'.
No anti-freeze is required; instead, all the piping is sloped to cause water to drain back to the tank.
The tank is not pressurized and operates at atmospheric pressure.
As soon as the pump shuts off, flow reverses and the pipes empty before freezing can occur.
Residential solar thermal installations fall into two groups: passive (sometimes called "compact") and active (sometimes called "pumped") systems.
Both typically include an auxiliary energy source (electric heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central heating system) that is activated when the water in the tank falls below a minimum temperature setting, ensuring that hot water is always available.
The combination of Solar water heating and back-up heat from a wood stove chimney[16] can enable a hot water system to work all year round in cooler climates, without the supplemental heat requirement of a Solar water heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.
When a Solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used together, solar heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated by the central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will replace the lower heating element and the upper element will remain to provide for supplemental heat.
However, the primary need for central heating is at night and in winter when solar gain is lower.
Therefore, Solar water heating for washing and bathing is often a better application than central heating because supply and demand are better matched.
In many climates, a solar hot water system can provide up to 85% of domestic hot water energy.
This can include domestic non-electric concentrating solar thermal systems.
In many northern European countries, combined hot water and space heating systems (solar combisystems) are used to provide 15 to 25% of home heating energy.
When combined with storage, large scale solar heating can provide 50-97% of annual heat consumption for district heating.[17][18] Direct or open loop systems circulate potable water through the collectors.
They are relatively cheap.
Drawbacks include: The advent of freeze-tolerant designs expanded the market for SWH to colder climates.
In freezing conditions, earlier models were damaged when the water turned to ice, rupturing one or more components.
Indirect or closed loop systems use a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the "heat-transfer fluid" (HTF) fluid to the potable water.
The most common HTF is an antifreeze/water mix that typically uses non-toxic propylene glycol.
After heating in the panels, the HTF travels to the heat exchanger, where its heat is transferred to the potable water.
Indirect systems offer freeze protection and typically overheat protection.
Passive systems rely on heat-driven convection or heat pipes to circulate the working fluid.
Passive systems cost less and require low or no maintenance, but are less efficient.
Overheating and freezing are major concerns.
Active systems use one or more pumps to circulate water and/or heating fluid.
This permits a much wider range of system configurations.
Pumped systems are more expensive to purchase and to operate.
However, they operate at higher efficiency and can be more easily controlled.
Active systems have controllers with features such as interaction with a backup electric or gas-driven water heater, calculation and logging of the energy saved, safety functions, remote access and informative displays.
An integrated collector storage (ICS or batch heater) system uses a tank that acts as both storage and collector.
Batch heaters are thin rectilinear tanks with a glass side facing the sun at noon.
They are simple and less costly than plate and tube collectors, but they may require bracing if installed on a roof (to support 400–700 lb (180–320 kg) lbs of water), suffer from significant heat loss at night since the side facing the sun is largely uninsulated and are only suitable in moderate climates.
A convection heat storage unit (CHS) system is similar to an ICS system, except the storage tank and collector are physically separated and transfer between the two is driven by convection.
CHS systems typically use standard flat-plate type or evacuated tube collectors.
The storage tank must be located above the collectors for convection to work properly.
The main benefit of CHS systems over ICS systems is that heat loss is largely avoided since the storage tank can be fully insulated.
Since the panels are located below the storage tank, heat loss does not cause convection, as the cold water stays at the lowest part of the system.
Pressurized antifreeze systems use a mix of antifreeze (almost always low-toxic propylene glycol) and water mix for HTF in order to prevent freeze damage.
Though effective at preventing freeze damage, antifreeze systems have drawbacks: A drainback system is an active indirect system where the HTF (usually pure water) circulates through the collector, driven by a pump.
The collector piping is not pressurized and includes an open drainback reservoir that is contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space.
The HTF remains in the drainback reseervoir unless the pump is operating and returns there (emptying the collector) when the pump is switched off.
The collector system, including piping, must drain via gravity into the drainback tank.
Drainback systems are not subject to freezing or overheating.
The pump operates only when appropriate for heat collection, but not to protect the HTF, increasing efficiency and reducing pumping costs.[19] Plans for Solar water heating systems are available on the Internet.[20] DIY SWH systems are usually cheaper than commercial ones, and they are used both in the developed and developing world.[21] Solar thermal collectors capture and retain heat from the sun and use it to heat a liquid.[23] Two important physical principles govern the technology of solar thermal collectors: Flat plate collectors are an extension of the idea to place a collector in an 'oven'-like box with glass directly facing the Sun.[1] Most flat plate collectors have two horizontal pipes at the top and bottom, called headers, and many smaller vertical pipes connecting them, called risers.
The risers are welded (or similarly connected) to thin absorber fins.
Heat-transfer fluid (water or water/antifreeze mix) is pumped from the hot water storage tank or heat exchanger into the collectors' bottom header, and it travels up the risers, collecting heat from the absorber fins, and then exits the collector out of the top header.
Serpentine flat plate collectors differ slightly from this "harp" design, and instead use a single pipe that travels up and down the collector.
However, since they cannot be properly drained of water, serpentine flat plate collectors cannot be used in drainback systems.
The type of glass used in flat plate collectors is almost always low-iron, tempered glass.
Such glass can withstand significant hail without breaking, which is one of the reasons that flat-plate collectors are considered the most durable collector type.
Unglazed or formed collectors are similar to flat-plate collectors, except they are not thermally insulated nor physically protected by a glass panel.
Consequently, these types of collectors are much less efficient when water temperature exceeds ambient air temperatures.
For pool heating applications, the water to be heated is often colder than the ambient roof temperature, at which point the lack of thermal insulation allows additional heat to be drawn from the surrounding environment.[25] Evacuated tube collectors (ETC) are a way to reduce the heat loss,[1] inherent in flat plates.
Since heat loss due to convection cannot cross a vacuum, it forms an efficient isolation mechanism to keep heat inside the collector pipes.[26] Since two flat glass sheets are generally not strong enough to withstand a vacuum, the vacuum is created between two concentric tubes.
Typically, the water piping in an ETC is therefore surrounded by two concentric tubes of glass separated by a vacuum that admits heat from the sun (to heat the pipe) but that limits heat loss.
The inner tube is coated with a thermal absorber.[27] Vacuum life varies from collector to collector, from 5 years to 15 years.
Flat plate collectors are generally more efficient than ETC in full sunshine conditions.
However, the energy output of flat plate collectors is reduced slightly more than ETCs in cloudy or extremely cold conditions.[1] Most ETCs are made out of annealed glass, which is susceptible to hail, failing given roughly golf ball -sized particles.
ETCs made from "coke glass," which has a green tint, are stronger and less likely to lose their vacuum, but efficiency is slightly reduced due to reduced transparency.
ETCs can gather energy from the sun all day long at low angles due to their tubular shape.[28] One way to power an active system is via a photovoltaic (PV) panel.
To ensure proper pump performance and longevity, the (DC) pump and PV panel must be suitably matched.
Although a PV-powered pump does not operate at night, the controller must ensure that the pump does not operate when the sun is out but the collector water is not hot enough.
PV pumps offer the following advantages: A bubble pump (also known as geyser pump) is suitable for flat panel as well as vacuum tube systems.
In a bubble pump system, the closed HTF circuit is under reduced pressure, which causes the liquid to boil at low temperature as the sun heats it.
The steam bubbles form a geyser, causing an upward flow.
The bubbles are separated from the hot fluid and condensed at the highest point in the circuit, after which the fluid flows downward toward the heat exchanger caused by the difference in fluid levels.[30][31][32] The HTF typically arrives at the heat exchanger at 70 °C and returns to the circulating pump at 50 °C.
Pumping typically starts at about 50 °C and increases as the sun rises until equilibrium is reached.
A differential controller senses temperature differences between water leaving the solar collector and the water in the storage tank near the heat exchanger.
The controller starts the pump when the water in the collector is sufficiently about 8–10 °C warmer than the water in the tank, and stops it when the temperature difference reaches 3–5 °C.
This ensures that stored water always gains heat when the pump operates and prevents the pump from excessive cycling on and off.
(In direct systems the pump can be triggered with a difference around 4 °C because they have no heat exchanger.) The simplest collector is a water-filled metal tank in a sunny place.
The sun heats the tank.
This was how the first systems worked.[4] This setup would be inefficient due to the equilibrium effect: as soon as heating of the tank and water begins, the heat gained is lost to the environment and this continues until the water in the tank reaches ambient temperature.
The challenge is to limit the heat loss.
ICS or batch collectors reduce heat loss by thermally insulating the tank.[1][33] This is achieved by encasing the tank in a glass-topped box that allows heat from the sun to reach the water tank.[34] The other walls of the box are thermally insulated, reducing convection and radiation.[35] The box can also have a reflective surface on the inside.
This reflects heat lost from the tank back towards the tank.
In a simple way one could consider an ICS solar water heater as a water tank that has been enclosed in a type of 'oven' that retains heat from the sun as well as heat of the water in the tank.
Using a box does not eliminate heat loss from the tank to the environment, but it largely reduces this loss.
Standard ICS collectors have a characteristic that strongly limits the efficiency of the collector: a small surface-to-volume ratio.[36] Since the amount of heat that a tank can absorb from the sun is largely dependent on the surface of the tank directly exposed to the sun, it follows that the surface size defines the degree to which the water can be heated by the sun.
Cylindrical objects such as the tank in an ICS collector have an inherently small surface-to-volume ratio.
Collectors attempt to increase this ratio for efficient warming of the water.
Variations on this basic design include collectors that combine smaller water containers and evacuated glass tube technology, a type of ICS system known as an Evacuated Tube Batch (ETB) collector.[1] ETSCs can be more useful than other solar collectors during winter season.
ETCs can be used for heating and cooling purposes in industries like pharmaceutical and drug, paper, leather and textile and also for residential houses, hospitals, nursing home, hotels, swimming pool etc.
An ETC can operate at a range of temperatures from medium to high for solar hot water, swimming pool, air conditioning and solar cooker.
ETCs higher operational temperature range (up to 200 °C (392 °F)) makes them suitable for industrial applications such as steam generation, heat engine and solar drying.
Floating pool covering systems and separate STCs are used for pool heating.
Pool covering systems, whether solid sheets or floating disks, act as insulation and reduce heat loss.
Much heat loss occurs through evaporation, and using a cover slows evaporation.
STCs for nonpotable pool water use are often made of plastic.
Pool water is mildly corrosive due to chlorine.
Water is circulated through the panels using the existing pool filter or supplemental pump.
In mild environments, unglazed plastic collectors are more efficient as a direct system.
In cold or windy environments evacuated tubes or flat plates in an indirect configuration are used in conjunction with a heat exchanger.
This reduces corrosion.
A fairly simple differential temperature controller is used to direct the water to the panels or heat exchanger either by turning a valve or operating the pump.
Once the pool water has reached the required temperature, a diverter valve is used to return water directly to the pool without heating.[37] Many systems are configured as drainback systems where the water drains into the pool when the water pump is switched off.
The collector panels are usually mounted on a nearby roof, or ground-mounted on a tilted rack.
Due to the low temperature difference between the air and the water, the panels are often formed collectors or unglazed flat plate collectors.
A simple rule-of-thumb for the required panel area needed is 50% of the pool's surface area.[37] This is for areas where pools are used in the summer season only.
Adding solar collectors to a conventional outdoor pool, in a cold climate, can typically extend the pool's comfortable usage by months and more if an insulating pool cover is used.[25] When sized at 100% coverage most solar hot water systems are capable of heating a pool anywhere from as little as 4 °C for a wind-exposed pool, to as much as 10 °C for a wind-sheltered pool covered consistently with a solar pool blanket.[38] An active solar energy system analysis program may be used to optimize the solar pool heating system before it is built.
The amount of heat delivered by a Solar water heating system depends primarily on the amount of heat delivered by the sun at a particular place (insolation).
In the tropics insolation can be relatively high, e.g.
7 kWh/m² per day, versus e.g., 3.2 kWh/m² per day in temperate areas.
Even at the same latitude average insolation can vary a great deal from location to location due to differences in local weather patterns and the amount of overcast.
Calculators are available for estimating insolation at a site.[39][40][41] Below is a table that gives a rough indication of the specifications and energy that could be expected from a Solar water heating system involving some 2 m2 of absorber area of the collector, demonstrating two evacuated tube and three flat plate Solar water heating systems.
Certification information or figures calculated from those data are used.
The bottom two rows give estimates for daily energy production (kWh/day) for a tropical and a temperate scenario.
These estimates are for heating water to 50 °C above ambient temperature.
With most Solar water heating systems, the energy output scales linearly with the collector surface area.[42] The figures are fairly similar between the above collectors, yielding some 4 kWh/day in a temperate climate and some 8 kWh/day in a tropical climate when using a collector with a 2 m2 absorber.
In the temperate scenario this is sufficient to heat 200 litres of water by some 17 °C.
In the tropical scenario the equivalent heating would be by some 33 °C.
Many thermosiphon systems have comparable energy output to equivalent active systems.
The efficiency of evacuated tube collectors is somewhat lower than for flat plate collectors because the absorbers are narrower than the tubes and the tubes have space between them, resulting in a significantly larger percentage of inactive overall collector area.
Some methods of comparison[43] calculate the efficiency of evacuated tube collectors based on the actual absorber area and not on the space occupied as has been done in the above table.
Efficiency is reduced at higher temperatures.
In sunny, warm locations, where freeze protection is not necessary, an ICS (batch type) solar water heater can be cost effective.[35] In higher latitudes, design requirements for cold weather add to system complexity and cost.
This increases initial costs, but not life-cycle costs.
The biggest single consideration is therefore the large initial financial outlay of Solar water heating systems.[44] Offsetting this expense can take years.[45] The payback period is longer in temperate environments.[46] Since solar energy is free, operating costs are small.
At higher latitudes, solar heaters may be less effective due to lower insolation, possibly requiring larger and/or dual-heating systems.[46] In some countries government incentives can be significant.
Cost factors (positive and negative) include: Payback times can vary greatly due to regional sun, extra cost due to frost protection needs of collectors, household hot water use etc.
For instance in central and southern Florida the payback period could easily be 7 years or less rather than the 12.6 years indicated on the chart for the U.S.[47] The payback period is shorter given greater insolation.
However, even in temperate areas, Solar water heating is cost effective.
The payback period for photovoltaic systems has historically been much longer.[46] Costs and payback period are shorter if no complementary/backup system is required.[45] thus extending the payback period of such a system.
Australia operates a system of Renewable Energy Credits, based on national renewable energy targets.[51] The Toronto Solar Neighbourhoods Initiative offers subsidies for the purchase of Solar water heating units.[61] The source of electricity in an active SWH system determines the extent to which a system contributes to atmospheric carbon during operation.
Active solar thermal systems that use mains electricity to pump the fluid through the panels are called 'low carbon solar'.
In most systems the pumping reduces the energy savings by about 8% and the carbon savings of the solar by about 20%.[62] However, low power pumps operate with 1-20W.[63][64] Assuming a solar collector panel delivering 4 kWh/day and a pump running intermittently from mains electricity for a total of 6 hours during a 12-hour sunny day, the potentially negative effect of such a pump can be reduced to about 3% of the heat produced.
However, PV-powered active solar thermal systems typically use a 5–30 W PV panel and a small, low power diaphragm pump or centrifugal pump to circulate the water.
This reduces the operational carbon and energy footprint.
Alternative non-electrical pumping systems may employ thermal expansion and phase changes of liquids and gases.
Recognised standards can be used to deliver robust and quantitative life cycle assessments (LCA).
LCA considers the financial and environmental costs of acquisition of raw materials, manufacturing, transport, using, servicing and disposal of the equipment.
Elements include: In terms of energy consumption, some 60% goes into the tank, with 30% towards the collector[65] (thermosiphon flat plate in this case).
In Italy,[66] some 11 giga-joules of electricity are used in producing SWH equipment, with about 35% goes toward the tank, with another 35% towards the collector.
The main energy-related impact is emissions.
The energy used in manufacturing is recovered within the first 2–3 years of use (in southern Europe).
By contrast the energy payback time in the UK is reported as only 2 years.
This figure was for a direct system, retrofitted to an existing water store, PV pumped, freeze tolerant and of 2.8 sqm aperture.
For comparison, a PV installation took around 5 years to reach energy payback, according to the same comparative study.[67] In terms of CO2 emissions, a large fraction of the emissions saved is dependent on the degree to which gas or electricity is used to supplement the sun.
Using the Eco-indicator 99 points system as a yardstick (i.e.
the yearly environmental load of an average European inhabitant) in Greece,[65] a purely gas-driven system may have fewer emissions than a solar system.
This calculation assumes that the solar system produces about half of the hot water requirements of a household.
But because methane (CH4) emissions from the natural gas fuel cycle[68] dwarf the greenhouse impact of CO2, the net greenhouse emissions (CO2e) from gas-driven systems are vastly greater than for solar heaters, especially if supplemental electricity is also from carbon-free generation.[citation needed] A test system in Italy produced about 700 kg of CO2, considering all the components of manufacture, use and disposal.
Maintenance was identified as an emissions-costly activity when the heat transfer fluid (glycol-based) was replaced.
However, the emissions cost was recovered within about two years of use of the equipment.[66] In Australia, life cycle emissions were also recovered.
The tested SWH system had about 20% of the impact of an electrical water heater and half that of a gas water heater.[45] Analysing their lower impact retrofit freeze-tolerant Solar water heating system, Allen et al.
(qv) reported a production CO2 impact of 337 kg, which is around half the environmental impact reported in the Ardente et al.
(qv) study.
All relevant participants of the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target and Small-scale Renewable Energy Scheme must comply with the above Acts.[70]
Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature.
Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating.
In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses.
Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers.
These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature.
Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs.
The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.
Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water heaters, hot water heaters, hot water tanks, boilers, heat exchangers, geysers (Southern Africa only), or calorifiers.
These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source.
In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water (DHW).
Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water.
These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water.
Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy.
Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity.
Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water.
This is especially the case in Scandinavia, Finland and Poland.
District heating systems supply energy for Water heating and space heating from combined heat and power (CHP) plants, waste heat from industries, incinerators, geothermal heating, and central solar heating.
Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers' premises.
Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system, due to the expected high availability of district heating systems.
In the United States today, domestic hot water used in homes is most commonly heated with natural gas, electric resistance, or a heat pump.
Electric heat pump hot water heaters are significantly more efficient than electric resistance hot water heaters, but also more expensive to purchase.
Some energy utilities offer their customers funding to help offset the higher first cost of energy efficient hot water heaters.
Hot water used for space heating may be heated by fossil fuels in a boiler, while potable water may be heated in a separate appliance.
This is common practice in the US, especially when warm-air space heating is usually employed.[1] In household and commercial usage, most North American and Southern Asian water heaters are the tank type, also called storage water heaters, these consist of a cylindrical vessel or container that keeps water continuously hot and ready to use.
Typical sizes for household use range from 75 to 400 liters (20 to 100 US gallons).
These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources.
Natural gas heaters are most popular in the US and most European countries, since the gas is often conveniently piped throughout cities and towns and currently is the cheapest to use.
In the United States, typical natural gas water heaters for households without unusual needs are 150 to 190 litres (40 to 50 US gal) with a burner rated at 10.0 to 11.7 kilowatts (34,000 to 40,000 BTU/h).
This is a popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods.
Water is heated in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply.
A pressure reducing valve is sometimes employed to limit the pressure to a safe level for the vessel.
In North America, these vessels are called hot water tanks, and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, a heat pump, or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.
Where hot-water space heating boilers are installed, domestic hot water cylinders are usually heated indirectly by primary water from the boiler, or by an electric immersion heater (often as backup to the boiler).
In the UK these vessels are called indirect cylinders, or direct cylinders, respectively.
Additionally, if these cylinders form part of a sealed system, providing mains-pressure hot water, they are known as unvented cylinders.
In the US, when connected to a boiler they are called indirect-fired water heaters.
Compared to tankless heaters, storage water heaters have the advantage of using energy (gas or electricity) at a relatively slow rate, storing the heat for later use.
The disadvantage is that over time, heat escapes through the tank wall and the water cools down, activating the heating system to heat the water back up, so investing in a tank with better insulation improves this standby efficiency.[2] Additionally, when heavy use exhausts the hot water, there is a significant delay before hot water is available again.
Larger tanks tend to provide hot water with less temperature fluctuation at moderate flow rates.
Volume storage water heaters in the United States and New Zealand are typically vertical, cylindrical tanks, usually standing on the floor or on a platform raised a short distance above the floor.
Volume storage water heaters in Spain are typically horizontal.
In India, they are mainly vertical.
In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms.
In Australia, gas and electric outdoor tank heaters have mainly been used (with high temperatures to increase effective capacity), but solar roof tanks are becoming fashionable.
Tiny point-of-use (POU) electric storage water heaters with capacities ranging from 8 to 32 liters (2 to 6 gallons) are made for installation in kitchen and bath cabinets or on the wall above a sink.
They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater.
They may be used when retrofitting a building with hot water plumbing is too costly or impractical.
Since they maintain water temperature thermostatically, they can only supply a continuous flow of hot water at extremely low flow rates, unlike high-capacity tankless heaters.
In tropical countries, like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L.
Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate.
A locational design decision may be made between point-of-use and centralized water heaters.
Centralized water heaters are more traditional, and are still a good choice for small buildings.
For larger buildings with intermittent or occasional hot water use, multiple POU water heaters may be a better choice, since they can reduce long waits for hot water to arrive from a remote heater.
The decision where to locate the water heater(s) is only partially independent of the decision of a tanked vs.
tankless water heater, or the choice of energy source for the heat.
Tankless water heaters—also called instantaneous, continuous flow, inline, flash, on-demand, or instant-on water heaters—are gaining in popularity.[citation needed] These high-power water heaters instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain any water internally except for what is in the heat exchanger coil.
Copper heat exchangers are preferred in these units because of their high thermal conductivity and ease of fabrication.
Tankless heaters may be installed throughout a household at more than one point-of-use (POU), far from a central water heater, or larger centralized models may still be used to provide all the hot water requirements for an entire house.
The main advantages of tankless water heaters are a plentiful continuous flow of hot water (as compared to a limited flow of continuously heated hot water from conventional tank water heaters), and potential energy savings under some conditions.
The main disadvantage is their much higher initial costs; a US study in Minnesota reported a 20- to 40-year payback for the tankless water heaters.[citation needed] In a comparison to a less efficient natural gas fired hot water tank, on-demand natural gas will cost 30% more over its useful life.[citation needed] Stand-alone appliances for quickly heating water for domestic usage are known in North America as tankless or on demand water heaters.
In some places, they are called multipoint heaters, geysers or ascots.
In Australia and New Zealand they are called instantaneous hot water units.
In Argentina they are called calefones.
In that country calefones use gas instead of electricity.
A similar wood-fired appliance was known as the chip heater.
A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed is for a boiler also to heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of hot water without extra equipment.
Appliances that can supply both space-heating and domestic hot water are called combination (or combi) boilers.
Though on-demand heaters provide a continuous supply of domestic hot water, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies.
An electric shower head has an electric heating element which heats water as it passes through.
These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use (POU) tankless water heaters, and are widely used in some countries.
Invented in Brazil in the 1930s and used frequently since the 1940s, the electric shower is a home appliance often seen in South American countries due to the higher costs of gas distribution.
Earlier models were made of chromed copper or brass, which were expensive, but since 1970, units made of injected plastics are popular due to low prices similar to that of a hair dryer.
Electric showers have a simple electric system, working like a coffee maker, but with a larger water flow.
A flow switch turns on the device when water flows through it.
Once the water is stopped, the device turns off automatically.
An ordinary electric shower often has three heat settings: high (5.5 kW), low (2.5 kW), or cold (0 W) to use when a central heater system is available or in hot seasons.
The power consumption of electric showers in the maximum heating setting is about 5.5 kW for 120 V and 7.5 kW for 220 V.
The lower costs with electric showers compared to the higher costs with boilers is due to the time of use: an electric shower uses energy only while the water flows, while a boiler works many times a day to keep a quantity of standing water hot for use throughout the day and night.
Moreover, the transfer of electric energy to the water in an electric shower head is very efficient, approaching 100%.
Electric showers may save energy compared to electric tank heaters, which lose some standby heat.
There is a wide range of electric showers, with various types of heating controls.
The heating element of an electric shower is immersed in the water stream, using a nichrome resistance element which is sheathed and electrically isolated, like the ones used in oil heaters, radiators or clothes irons, providing safety.
Due to electrical safety standards, modern electric showers are made of plastic instead of using metallic casings like in the past.
As an electrical appliance that uses more electric current than a washer or a dryer, an electric shower installation requires careful planning, and generally is intended to be wired directly from the electrical distribution box with a dedicated circuit breaker and ground system.
A poorly installed system with old aluminum wires or bad connections may be dangerous, as the wires can overheat or electric current may leak via the water stream through the body of the user to earth.[3] Increasingly, solar powered water heaters are being used.
Their solar collectors are installed outside dwellings, typically on the roof or walls or nearby, and the potable hot water storage tank is typically a pre-existing or new conventional water heater, or a water heater specifically designed for solar thermal.
The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector.
Many such systems are said to use integrated collector storage (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector.
Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.
By contrast, indirect or closed-loop systems do not allow potable water through the panels, but rather pump a heat transfer fluid (either water or a water/antifreeze mix) through the panels.
After collecting heat in the panels, the heat transfer fluid flows through a heat exchanger, transferring its heat to the potable hot water.
When the panels are cooler than the storage tank or when the storage tank has already reached its maximum temperature, the controller in closed-loop systems stops the circulation pumps.
In a drainback system, the water drains into a storage tank contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space, protected from freezing temperatures.
With antifreeze systems, however, the pump must be run if the panel temperature gets too hot (to prevent degradation of the antifreeze) or too cold (to prevent the water/antifreeze mixture from freezing.) Flat panel collectors are typically used in closed-loop systems.
Flat panels, which often resemble skylights, are the most durable type of collector, and they also have the best performance for systems designed for temperatures within 56 °C (100 °F) of ambient temperature.
Flat panels are regularly used in both pure water and antifreeze systems.
Another type of solar collector is the evacuated tube collector, which are intended for cold climates that do not experience severe hail and/or applications where high temperatures are needed (i.e., over 94 °C [201 °F]).
Placed in a rack, evacuated tube collectors form a row of glass tubes, each containing absorption fins attached to a central heat-conducting rod (copper or condensation-driven).
The evacuated description refers to the vacuum created in the glass tubes during the manufacturing process, which results in very low heat loss and lets evacuated tube systems achieve extreme temperatures, far in excess of water's boiling point.
In countries like Iceland and New Zealand, and other volcanic regions, Water heating may be done using geothermal heating, rather than combustion.
Where a space-heating water boiler is employed, the traditional arrangement in the UK is to use boiler-heated (primary) water to heat potable (secondary) water contained in a cylindrical vessel (usually made of copper)—which is supplied from a cold water storage vessel or container, usually in the roof space of the building.
This produces a fairly steady supply of DHW (Domestic Hot Water) at low static pressure head but usually with a good flow.
In most other parts of the world, Water heating appliances do not use a cold water storage vessel or container, but heat water at pressures close to that of the incoming mains water supply.
Other improvements to water heaters include check valve devices at their inlet and outlet, cycle timers, electronic ignition in the case of fuel-using models, sealed air intake systems in the case of fuel-using models, and pipe insulation.
The sealed air-intake system types are sometimes called "band-joist" intake units.
"High-efficiency" condensing units can convert up to 98% of the energy in the fuel to heating the water.
The exhaust gases of combustion are cooled and are mechanically ventilated either through the roof or through an exterior wall.
At high combustion efficiencies a drain must be supplied to handle the water condensed out of the combustion products, which are primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor.
In traditional plumbing in the UK, the space-heating boiler is set up to heat a separate hot water cylinder or water heater for potable hot water.
Such water heaters are often fitted with an auxiliary electrical immersion heater for use if the boiler is out of action for a time.
Heat from the space-heating boiler is transferred to the water heater vessel/container by means of a heat exchanger, and the boiler operates at a higher temperature than the potable hot water supply.
Most potable water heaters in North America are completely separate from the space heating units, due to the popularity of HVAC/forced air systems in North America.
Residential combustion water heaters manufactured since 2003 in the United States have been redesigned to resist ignition of flammable vapors and incorporate a thermal cutoff switch, per ANSI Z21.10.1.
The first feature attempts to prevent vapors from flammable liquids and gases in the vicinity of the heater from being ignited and thus causing a house fire or explosion.
The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions.
These safety requirements were made in response to homeowners storing, or spilling, gasoline or other flammable liquids near their water heaters and causing fires.
Since most of the new designs incorporate some type of flame arrestor screen, they require monitoring to make sure they do not become clogged with lint or dust, reducing the availability of air for combustion.
If the flame arrestor becomes clogged, the thermal cutoff may act to shut down the heater.
A wetback stove (NZ), wetback heater (NZ), or back boiler (UK), is a simple household secondary water heater using incidental heat.
It typically consists of a hot water pipe running behind a fireplace or stove (rather than hot water storage), and has no facility to limit the heating.
Modern wetbacks may run the pipe in a more sophisticated design to assist heat-exchange.
These designs are being forced out by government efficiency regulations that do not count the energy used to heat water as 'efficiently' used.[4] Another type of water heater developed in Europe predated the storage model.
In London, England, in 1868, a painter named Benjamin Waddy Maughan invented the first instantaneous domestic water heater that did not use solid fuel.
Named the geyser after an Icelandic gushing hot spring, Maughan's invention made cold water at the top flow through pipes that were heated by hot gases from a burner at the bottom.
Hot water then flowed into a sink or tub.
The invention was somewhat dangerous because there was no flue to remove heated gases from the bathroom.
A water heater is still sometimes called a geyser in the UK.
Maughn's invention influenced the work of a Norwegian mechanical engineer named Edwin Ruud.
The first automatic, storage tank-type gas water heater was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US).
The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation.
Water typically enters residences in the US at about 10 °C (50 °F), depending on latitude and season.
Hot water temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about 40 °C (72 °F) if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use.
The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is 9.5 litres (2.5 US gal) per minute.
Sink and dishwasher usages range from 4–11 litres (1–3 US gal) per minute.
Natural gas is often measured by volume or heat content.
Common units of measurement by volume are cubic metre or cubic feet at standard conditions or by heat content in kilowatt hours, British thermal units (BTU) or therm, which is equal to 100,000 BTU.
A BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
A US gallon of water weighs 8.3 pounds (3.8 kg).
To raise 230 litres (60 US gal) of water from 10 °C (50 °F) to 50 °C (122 °F) at 90% efficiency requires 60 × 8.3 × (122 − 50) × 1.11 = 39,840 BTU.
A 46 kilowatts (157,000 BTU/h) heater, as might exist in a tankless heater, would take about 15 minutes to do this.
At $1 per therm, the cost of the gas would be about 40 cents.
In comparison, a typical 230 litres (60 US gal) tank electric water heater has a 4.5 kilowatts (15,000 BTU/h) heating element, which at 100% efficient results in a heating time of about 2.34 hours.
At 16 cents/kWh the electricity would cost $1.68.
Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly depending on manufacturer and model.
However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (how efficiently energy transfers to the water) reaching about 98%.
Gas fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 82–94% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses).
Overall energy factors can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems.
Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units.
Energy Star-qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an intermittent pilot together with an automatic flue damper, baffle blowers, or power venting.
Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program, however, the Energy Star program does include electric heat pump units with energy factors of 200% or higher.
Tankless gas water heaters (as of 2015) must have an energy factor of 90% or higher for Energy Star qualification.
Since electricity production in thermal plants has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (combined cycle gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric Water heating may be the least energy efficient option.
However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a low carbon source of electricity is used.
Using district heating utilizing waste heat from electricity generation and other industries to heat residences and hot water gives an increased overall efficiency, removing the need for burning fossil fuel or using high energy value electricity to produce heat in the individual home.
Unfortunately, it takes a great deal of energy to heat water, as one may experience when waiting to boil a gallon of water on a stove.
For this reason, tankless on-demand water heaters require a powerful energy source.
A standard 120-V, 15-ampere rated wall electric outlet, by comparison, only sources enough power to warm a disappointingly small amount of water: about 0.17 US gallons (0.64 L) per minute at 40 °C (72 °F) temperature elevation.
The energy used by an electric water heater can be reduced by as much as 18% through optimal schedule and temperature control that is based on knowledge of the usage pattern.
[5] On April 16, 2015, as part of the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA), new minimum standards for efficiency of residential water heaters set by the United States Department of Energy went into effect.[6] All new gas storage tank water heaters with capacities smaller than 55 US gallons (210 l; 46 imp gal) sold in the United States in 2015 or later shall have an energy factor of at least 60% (for 50-US-gallon units, higher for smaller units), increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 58% energy factor for 50-US-gallon gas units.
Electric storage tank water heaters with capacities less than 55 US gallons sold in the United States shall have an energy factor of at least 95%, increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 90% for 50-US-gallon electric units.
Under the 2015 standard, for the first time, storage water heaters with capacities of 55 US gallons or larger now face stricter efficiency requirements than those of 50 US gallons or less.
Under the pre-2015 standard, a 75-US-gallon (280 l; 62 imp gal) gas storage water heater with a nominal input of 22 kilowatts (75,000 BTU/h) or less was able to have an energy factor as low as 53%, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for a 75-US-gallon gas storage tank water heater is now 74%, which can only be achieved by using condensing technology.
Storage water heaters with a nominal input of 22 kilowatts (75,000 BTU/h) or greater are not currently affected by these requirements, since energy factor is not defined for such units.
An 80-US-gallon (300 l; 67 imp gal) electric storage tank water heater was able to have a minimum energy factor of 86% under the pre-2015 standard, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for an 80-gallon electric storage tank water heater is now 197%, which is only possible with heat pump technology.
This rating measures efficiency at the point of use.
Depending on how electricity is generated, overall efficiency may be much lower.
For example, in a traditional coal plant, only about 30–35% of the energy in the coal ends up as electricity on the other end of the generator.[7] Losses on the electrical grid (including line losses and voltage transformation losses) reduce electrical efficiency further.
According to data from the Energy Information Administration, transmission and distribution losses in 2005 consumed 6.1% of net generation.[7] In contrast, 90% of natural gas’ energy value is delivered to the consumer.[citation needed] (In neither case is the energy expended exploring, developing and extracting coal or natural gas resources included in the quoted efficiency numbers.) Gas tankless water heaters shall have an energy factor of 82% or greater under the 2015 standards, which corresponds to the pre-2015 Energy Star standard.
Water heaters potentially can explode and cause significant damage, injury, or death if certain safety devices are not installed.
A safety device called a temperature and pressure relief (T&P or TPR) valve, is normally fitted on the top of the water heater to dump water if the temperature or pressure becomes too high.
Most plumbing codes require that a discharge pipe be connected to the valve to direct the flow of discharged hot water to a drain, typically a nearby floor drain, or outside the living space.
Some building codes allow the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage.[8] If a gas or propane fired water heater is installed in a garage or basement, many plumbing codes require that it be elevated at least 18 in (46 cm) above the floor to reduce the potential for fire or explosion due to spillage or leakage of combustible liquids in the garage.
Furthermore, certain local codes mandate that tank-type heaters in new and retrofit installations must be secured to an adjacent wall by a strap or anchor to prevent tipping over and breaking the water and gas pipes in the event of an earthquake.[9] For older houses where the water heater is part of the space heating boiler, and plumbing codes allow, some plumbers install an automatic gas shutoff (such as the "Watts 210") in addition to a TPR valve.
When the device senses that the temperature reaches 99 °C (210 °F), it shuts off the gas supply and prevents further heating.[citation needed] In addition, an expansion tank or exterior pressure relief valve must be installed to prevent pressure buildup in the plumbing from rupturing pipes, valves, or the water heater.
Scalding is a serious concern with any water heater.
Human skin burns quickly at high temperature, in less than 5 seconds at 60 °C (140 °F), but much slower at 53 °C (127 °F) — it takes a full minute for a second degree burn.
Older people and children often receive serious scalds due to disabilities or slow reaction times.[10] In the United States and elsewhere it is common practice to put a tempering valve on the outlet of the water heater.
The result of mixing hot and cold water via a tempering valve is referred to as "tempered water".[11] A tempering valve mixes enough cold water with the hot water from the heater to keep the outgoing water temperature fixed at a more moderate temperature, often set to 50 °C (122 °F).
Without a tempering valve, reduction of the water heater's setpoint temperature is the most direct way to reduce scalding.
However, for sanitation, hot water is needed at a temperature that can cause scalding.
This may be accomplished by using a supplemental heater in an appliance that requires hotter water.
Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic water heater.
Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than 55 °C (131 °F), and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly Legionella, in water that is not hot enough to kill them.
Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to 55 °C (131 °F).
The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at 60 °C (140 °F) and distributed so that a temperature of at least 50 °C (122 °F) and preferably 55 °C (131 °F) is achieved within one minute at points of use.[12] If there is a dishwasher without a booster heater, it may require a water temperature within a range of 57–60 °C (135–140 °F) for optimum cleaning,[13] but tempering valves set to no more than 55 °C (131 °F) can be applied to faucets to avoid scalding.
Tank temperatures above 60 °C (140 °F) may produce limescale deposits, which could later harbor bacteria, in the water tank.
Higher temperatures may also increase etching of glassware in the dishwasher.
Tank thermostats are not a reliable guide to the internal temperature of the tank.
Gas-fired water tanks may have no temperature calibration shown.
An electric thermostat shows the temperature at the elevation of the thermostat, but water lower in the tank can be considerably cooler.
An outlet thermometer is a better indication of water temperature.[14] In the renewable energy industry (solar and heat pumps, in particular) the conflict between daily thermal Legionella control and high temperatures, which may drop system performance, is subject to heated debate.
In a paper seeking a green exemption from normal Legionellosis safety standards, Europe's top CEN solar thermal technical committee TC 312 asserts that a 50% fall in performance would occur if solar Water heating systems were heated to the base daily.
However some solar simulator analysis work using Polysun 5 suggests that an 11% energy penalty is a more likely figure.
Whatever the context, both energy efficiency and scalding safety requirements push in the direction of considerably lower water temperatures than the legionella pasteurization temperature of around 60 °C (140 °F).[citation needed] Legionella pneumophila has been detected at the point of use downstream from horizontally-mounted electric water heaters with volumes of 150 Liters.
[15] However, legionella can be safely and easily controlled with good design and engineering protocols.
For instance raising the temperature of water heaters once a day or even once every few days to 55 °C (131 °F) at the coldest part of the water heater for 30 minutes effectively controls legionella.
In all cases and in particular energy efficient applications, Legionnaires' disease is more often than not the result of engineering design issues that do not take into consideration the impact of stratification or low flow.[citation needed] It is also possible to control Legionella risks by chemical treatment of the water.
This technique allows lower water temperatures to be maintained in the pipework without the associated Legionella risk.
The benefit of lower pipe temperatures is that the heat loss rate is reduced and thus the energy consumption is reduced.
Rheem Manufacturing Company is an American privately held manufacturer that produces residential and commercial water heaters and boilers, as well as heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment.
The company also produces and sells products under the Ruud brand name.
It is a subsidiary of Paloma Industries.[2] What became Rheem started in 1925 as a supplier of packaging to the petroleum industry, and is currently headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia in the United States.
The company is one of the largest manufacturers of both water heating and HVAC equipment in the United States, and also produces and markets products in Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, China, Chile[3], Brazil, Canada, Iraq, Kuwait, Mexico,[4] New Zealand, Perú[5], Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, UAE, and Ukraine.[6] The company is named for its founders, brothers Richard "R.
S." Rheem and Donald "D.
L." Rheem.
They were the sons of William S.
Rheem (1862–1919), former Standard Oil Company of California president who led the construction of a major oil refinery for the company in Richmond, California.[7][8][9][10] The brothers initially began manufacturing galvanized steel drums in 1925 as a co-partnership with Pacific Galvanizing Company in Emeryville, California.[7][11][12][8] A third brother, William "W.K." Rheem, helped finance the company at its start.[11][8] The Rheem Manufacturing Company was subsequently organized on January 22, 1930, buying out Pacific Galvanizing.
Rheem also acquired the Republic Steel package company, which also had a plant in Richmond.[11] Republic Steel made boilers and tanks, which allowed Rheem to enter the business of water heating.
The company acquired the John Wood Manufacturing Company of California, which produced automatic gas storage water heaters, in 1931.[11] The company expanded overseas to Australia in 1936, building a plant in Sydney.[11][13] The Australian operation began making steel shipping containers, including drums, in 1937 and water heaters in 1939.[11] In 1941, the company became the largest manufacturer of automatic water heaters in the United States.[11] During World War II, much of the company's efforts went towards wartime production, including building ships and aircraft parts.[7][11] In 1954, Rheem brought the introduction of "glass-lining", which coated the interior of a water heater tank with porcelain to extend the life of the tank.[11] One of the most significant events came in 1956 with the introduction of "Rheemaire" central air conditioning and heater systems for homes.
This eventually became one of the company's primary business areas.[11] In 1959, Rheem purchased the Ruud Manufacturing Company.[11][14] In 1968[15] a plant was opened in Bergum (Burgum in Frisian) in the Netherlands by (among others) Mr.
P.
Toonstra.
The plant was successful but had to close its doors by the end of 1983.
A very popular product was the "Rembrandt van Rheem".
A semi-HR combination for hot water and central heating.
Rheem Bergum was also sponsor for years for one of the local soccer clubs.
Carrying the same name as the company.
Rheem Bergum also sponsored Rheem Racers, based in Utrecht.
This was an ice-hockey-club.
Unfortunately, there is little to find on the internet about the plant.
One can still find articles and pictures of the soccer-club which was later simply called "v.v.
Bergum" Rheem in Bergum carried the same logo as is still in use today by Rheem.
These facts are known because the editor of this part (me) worked at Rheem in the '80s.
Beginning in August 1970, Rheem began producing Heat pumps and HVAC units for residential applications, based in Fort Smith, Arkansas.[11][12] In 1983, Rheem introduced the Richmond Water Heaters brand, aimed at hardware stores and home-improvement centers.[11] In 1984, Rheem was acquired by Pace Industries, Inc.[11] The company discontinued containers in 1985, ending 60 years making steel drums and other containers.[11] In the same year, the company acquired Raypak, Inc., which expanded the business into swimming pool heaters as well as commercial boilers.[11] In 1988 Rheem was acquired by Paloma Industries, Ltd., a privately held Japanese company with headquarters in Nagoya, Japan, which wished to expand globally.[11][12][16] Rheem was the first residential HVAC company to begin using scroll compressors throughout their lineup in 1994, and all air conditioners and heat pumps continue to use Copeland Scroll Compressors.[11][17] The company was also first to introduce a 14 SEER remote condensing unit in 1997.
In 1998, the company began supplying the Home Depot with a line of GE branded water heaters.[18] In 2009, Rheem and Ruud were the first to sell a Hybrid Heat Pump Water Heater, which was more than twice as efficient as similar electric water heaters.[19] Also in the same year, Rheem and Ruud central air conditioners were reported to have the fewest percentage of units requiring repair among all major HVAC brands according to Consumer Reports.[20] Rheem's market share of the central air conditioner market had been as high as 16% in the 1980s and dropped to about 11% by 2000.[21] By 2008, a report by the United States Department of Energy ranked the firm as fifth in the US in the central air conditioner and heat pump market with a 12% market share (behind UTC/Carrier with 27%, both Goodman/Amana and American Standard/Trane with 14% and Lennox with 12%), while in the residential gas furnace market as of 2008, the company was also ranked fifth with a 12% market share (behind Carrier with 32%, Goodman with 15%, and both Lennox and Trane with 13%).[22] Ruud was founded by Edwin Ruud (1854–1932), a Norwegian immigrant who lived in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
He developed the first automatic storage tank gas-fired water heater, which went into production in 1889.[23] Ruud worked for George Westinghouse (1846–1914), but eventually bought the rights to produce the product he invented and formed his own company in 1897.
In 1913, Ruud merged and absorbed the Humphrey Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan which also manufactured water heaters.[24] The Humphrey Company had a large manufacturing operation in Kalamazoo, which Ruud continued to operate and expand.
In 1954, Ruud moved all operations from Pittsburgh to Kalamazoo where they were headquartered until the purchase by Rheem in 1960.[25] In North America, Rheem and Ruud both manufacture and sell a full line of heating and cooling products for residential and commercial applications, including up to 98.7% annual fuel use efficiency gas furnaces, oil-fired furnaces, up to 20 SEER air conditioners, heat pumps, thermostats, air handlers, package units, and indoor air quality products such as media filters, UV lamps, and humidifiers.
In many additional countries around the world, the companies sell numerous types of water heating equipment, including gas fired tank storage and tankless water heaters, high-efficiency condensing water heaters, hybrid heat pump water heaters, and solar water heaters under the Rheem, Ruud, Richmond, Paloma, Solahart, Splendid, and GE brands.
Swimming pool-related products include gas-fired and heat pump heaters sold under the Rheem and Raypak brands.
Protech replacement parts for HVAC systems are sold through the PROSTOCK retail program.[26][12] In December 2013, Rheem acquired Scottsboro, Alabama-based Heat Transfer Products Group (HTPG).[26] HTPG, a standalone company, produces the Russell, Witt, ColdZone and Kramer commercial refrigeration brands.[12] In 2015, Rheem won the top spot in the Water Heaters category for its brand familiarity by the Builder magazine.[27] Rheem Califone manufactured audiovisual equipment under the Rheem, Califone, and Roberts brands.
These were used in schools and institutions, and included public address systems, reel-to-reel audio tape recorders, phonographs, as well as Combo organs.[28][29][30] Rheem and Ruud also sold re-branded Briggs & Stratton residential Emergency power systems beginning in 2007.[31] As of March 2, 2013, the companies no longer listed backup generators on their Web sites.[32] All currently operating facilities are ISO 9001 certified.[33] Since 2007,[46] Rheem has sponsored Richard Childress Racing (RCR) in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and Xfinity Series through their Rheem, RUUD, and Richmond Water Heaters brands.[46][47] They previously sponsored Kevin Harvick and Harvick's racing team Kevin Harvick Incorporated (KHI), along with Ron Hornaday, Jr., Cale Gale and other former RCR & KHI drivers in the Cup, Xfinity, and Camping World Truck Series.[47][48][49][50] They formerly sponsored James Buescher in the Xfinity Series and Truck Series.[47][51] Brandon Jones, the son of current Rheem CEO J.R.
Jones, currently competes in the Xfinity Series.[47] In 2018 Rheem moved to Joe Gibbs Racing with Ryan Preece & Christopher Bell driving the Machine for 36 races.
Rheem also was put on the rear quarter panel of the No.
18 Cup car driven by Kyle Busch as an assosicate sponsor to the No.
18.
It was announced In September of 2019 that Rheem would sponsor Christopher Bell for an unknown number of races in the No.
95 Leavine Family Racing Toyota Camry in the Cup Series in 2020[52].
The Groupe Atlantic is a French HVAC company.
It was founded in Roche-sur-Yon[1] (in the Vendée region on the west coast of France) by Mr Radat and Mr Lamoure in 1968.
Groupe Atlantic is based in 10 different countries with over 20 factories.
The company has 20 factories, 10 of which are located outside France, and approximately 6,500 employees (as of March 2017),[2] of which approximately 2,900 are outside France[3] Its mission is: "To transform prevailing energies into lasting well-being, by creating thermal comfort solutions that are ecologically efficient, accessible to all and suited to individual needs."[4] 1968 - Atlantic was founded by Paul Radat and Pierre Lamoure.
1973 - Guillot was acquired 1986 - Thermor & Sauter were acquired 1989 - Pacific was acquired 1993 - Elge was acquired 2000 - Ygnis (Switzerland) was acquired (the first acquisition outside France) 2002 - Franco-Belge was acquired 2004 - The Cairo (Egypt) site was created 2006 - Magnum was acquired 2006 - The Odessa (Ukraine) site was created 2007 - The Izmir (Turkey) site was created 2008 - Hamworthy (United Kingdom) was taken over 2008 - The Fontaine (France) site was created 2011 - Lazzarini (Italy) and Erensan (Turkey) were acquired 2013 - Feinwerk (Germany) and Austria Email (Austria) were acquired 2014 - The Rayong (Thailand) site was created 2015 - Ideal, Keston and Gledhill (United Kingdom) were acquired 2015 – The Billy-Berclau (France) site was created 2016 - The Trappes (France) site was created 2017 - Thercon (Belgium) and Orcon (Netherlands) were acquired 2017 - The Kutasi (Georgia) site was created 2017 - The Dehradun (India) site was created 2018 - The Izmir (Turkey) site was created 2019 - ACV (Belgium) was acquired EUROPE🇪🇺 FRANCE 🇫🇷 AUSTRIA 🇦🇹 EGYPT 🇪🇬 UKRAINE 🇺🇦 UK 🇬🇧 ASIA THAILAND 🇹🇭 TURKEY 🇹🇷 EUROPE🇪🇺 FRANCE 🇫🇷 AUSTRIA 🇦🇹 BELGIUM 🇧🇪 CZECH REPUBLIC 🇨🇿 GERMANY 🇩🇪 ITALY 🇮🇹 NETHERLANDS 🇳🇱 POLAND 🇵🇱 PORTUGAL 🇵🇹 RUSSIA 🇷🇺 SPAIN 🇪🇸 SWITZERLAND 🇨🇭 UKRAINE 🇺🇦 UNITED KINGDOM 🇬🇧 ASIA TURKEY 🇹🇷 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 🇦🇪 VIETNAM 🇻🇳 AFRICA EGYPT 🇪🇬
Vytautas Kevin Gerulaitis (July 26, 1954 – September 17, 1994) was an American professional tennis player.
In 1975, Gerulaitis won the men's doubles title at Wimbledon, partnering with Sandy Mayer.
He won the men's singles title at one of the two Australian Open tournaments held in 1977 (Gerulaitis won the tournament that was held in December, while Roscoe Tanner won the earlier January tournament).
Gerulaitis also won two Italian Open titles, in 1977 and 1979, and the WCT Finals in Dallas, in 1978.
Gerulaitis was born on July 26, 1954, in Brooklyn, New York, to Lithuanian immigrant parents, and grew up in Howard Beach, Queens.[1] He attended Archbishop Molloy High School in Queens, graduating in 1971.
He attended Columbia College of Columbia University for one year before dropping out to pursue tennis full-time.
Gerulaitis was nicknamed "The Lithuanian Lion".[2] His younger sister Ruta was also a professional tennis player.
Both siblings' native language was Lithuanian.[3] Gerulaitis led the Pittsburgh Triangles to the World TeamTennis championship title at Pittsburgh's Civic Arena in 1975.
Gerulaitis played for the Triangles from 1974 until 1976.
He also played for the league's Indiana Loves franchise in 1977.
Gerulaitis was coached by Fred Stolle from 1977 until 1983.
He also won the men's doubles title at Wimbledon in 1975.
He was a singles semifinalist at Wimbledon in both 1977 and 1978.
In 1977 he lost a Wimbledon semifinal to his close friend and practice partner, Björn Borg, 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 8–6, a match later considered one of the greatest of the decade.[4] In 1977, Gerulaitis won the most significant title of his career at the Australian Open, when he defeated John Lloyd in the men's singles final in five sets.
In 1978, Gerulaitis won the year-end championship WCT Finals for the World Championship Tennis tour, beating Eddie Dibbs 6–3, 6–2, 6–1.
By 1978, he was the third-ranked men's singles player in the world.
In 1979, Gerulaitis lost in the men's singles finals at the US Open to fellow New Yorker, John McEnroe, in straight sets.
He was a member of the United States team which won the Davis Cup in 1979.
He won two singles "rubbers" in the final, as the US beat Italy 5–0.
Gerulaitis reached his third Grand Slam singles final in 1980, when he lost in the final of the French Open to Björn Borg in straight sets.
In February 1981, Gerulaitis won the star-laden Toronto Indoor invitational tournament, defeating John McEnroe in the final after having defeated Jimmy Connors in the semifinal.
During his career, Gerulaitis won 25 top-level singles titles and eight doubles titles.
His career-high singles ranking was world No.
3 which he reached on February 27, 1978.
Gerulaitis was known for his exceptionally quick hands at the net and his outstanding court coverage.[5] In 1985, Gerulaitis teamed with Bobby Riggs to launch a challenge to female players after the famous Battle of the Sexes.
The stunt, however, was short-lived when Gerulaitis and Riggs lost a doubles match against Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver.
He retired from the professional tour in 1986, and was a regular tennis commentator on the USA network between 1988 and 1994.
Gerulaitis coached Pete Sampras during the 1994 Italian Open in Rome, when Sampras' coach, Tim Gullikson, was on a family vacation.
Sampras won the title by defeating Boris Becker in the final in straight sets.
Gerulaitis is the subject of a Half Man Half Biscuit song from the McIntyre, Treadmore and Davitt album, "Outbreak of Vitas Gerulaitis".
Gerulaitis died on September 17, 1994, at the age of 40.
While he was visiting a friend's home in Southampton, New York, an improperly installed pool heater caused carbon monoxide gas to seep into the guesthouse where Gerulaitis was sleeping, causing his death by carbon monoxide poisoning.
Gerulaitis failed to show up for a dinner at 7 p.m.
that evening and his body was found the following day by a maid who went to the guesthouse.[6] Gerulaitis' remains were interred in Saint Charles Cemetery in Farmingdale, New York.
Criminal charges of negligent homicide were later brought against the pool mechanic and the company he worked for.
Both he and the company were acquitted at a trial approximately two years later in October 1996.
Jurors heard testimony that a technician from the heater manufacturer had made adjustments several days before Gerulaitis' death and that even if an exhaust pipe had been longer, carbon monoxide (colorless and odorless) would have still been drawn into the air-conditioning vent because it is heavier than air.
(This is a flawed argument, since carbon monoxide is actually slightly lighter than air.) Arthur M.
Luxenberg, a lawyer for the Gerulaitis family, stated that Gerulaitis' mother and sister believed the verdict to be fair, and he went on to state that the testimony at the trial "confirmed to us what we always knew: that there were a lot of other people involved in this matter."[7] The Vitas Gerulaitis Memorial Tennis Centre was opened in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania.[8] Also, a street in Vilnius is named after him.
"And let that be a lesson to you all.
Nobody beats Vitas Gerulaitis 17 times in a row."[9]
A Swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, paddling pool, or simply pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities.
Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure), and are also a common feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships.
In-ground pools are most commonly constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal, plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a standardized size, the largest of which is the Olympic-size Swimming pool.
Many health clubs, fitness centers, and private clubs have pools used mostly for exercise or recreation.
Many towns and cities provide public pools.
Many hotels have pools available for their guests to use at their own leisure.
Educational facilities such as high schools and universities sometimes have pools for physical education classes, recreational activities, leisure, and competitive athletics such as swimming teams.
Hot tubs and spas are pools filled with hot water, used for relaxation or hydrotherapy.
They are common in hotels and health clubs, and can also be found in many private homes.
Special Swimming pools are also used for diving, specialized water sports, and physical therapy, as well as for the training of lifeguards and astronauts.
Swimming pools may be heated or unheated.
The "Great Bath" at the site of Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan was most likely the first Swimming pool, dug during the 3rd millennium BC.
This pool is 12 by 7 metres (39 by 23 feet), is lined with bricks, and was covered with a tar-based sealant.[1] Ancient Greeks and Romans built artificial pools for athletic training in the palaestras, for nautical games and for military exercises.
Roman emperors had private Swimming pools in which fish were also kept, hence one of the Latin words for a pool was piscina.
The first heated Swimming pool was built by Gaius Maecenas in his gardens on the Esquiline Hill of Rome, likely sometime between 38 and 8 BC.
[2] Gaius Maecenas was a wealthy imperial advisor to Augustus and considered one of the first patrons of arts.[3] Ancient Sinhalese built pairs of pools called "Kuttam Pokuna" in the kingdom of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in the 4th century BC.
They were decorated with flights of steps, punkalas or pots of abundance, and scroll design.[4] Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the mid-19th century.
As early as 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards existed in London, England.[5] The Maidstone Swimming Club in Maidstone, Kent is believed to be the oldest surviving swimming club in Britain.
It was formed in 1844, in response to concerns over drownings in the River Medway, especially since would-be rescuers would often drown because they themselves could not swim to safety.
The club used to swim in the River Medway, and would hold races, diving competitions and water polo matches.
The South East Gazette July 1844 reported an aquatic breakfast party: coffee and biscuits were served on a floating raft in the river.
The coffee was kept hot over a fire; club members had to tread water and drink coffee at the same time.
The last swimmers managed to overturn the raft, to the amusement of 150 spectators.[6] The Amateur Swimming Association was founded in 1869 in England,[citation needed] and the Oxford Swimming Club in 1909.[7] The presence of indoor baths in the cobbled area of Merton Street might have persuaded the less hardy of the aquatic brigade to join.
So, bathers gradually became swimmers, and bathing pools became Swimming pools.[citation needed].
In 1939, Oxford created its first major public indoor pool at Temple Cowley.
The modern Olympic Games started in 1896 and included swimming races, after which the popularity of Swimming pools began to spread.
In the US, the Racquet Club of Philadelphia clubhouse (1907) boasts one of the world's first modern above-ground Swimming pools.
The first Swimming pool to go to sea on an ocean liner was installed on the White Star Line's Adriatic in 1906.[8] The oldest known public Swimming pool in America, Underwood Pool, is located in Belmont, Massachusetts.[9] Interest in competitive swimming grew following World War I.
Standards improved and training became essential.
Home Swimming pools became popular in the United States after World War II and the publicity given to swimming sports by Hollywood films such as Esther Williams' Million Dollar Mermaid made a home pool a desirable status symbol.
More than 50 years later, the home or residential Swimming pool is a common sight.
Some small nations enjoy a thriving Swimming pool industry (e.g., New Zealand pop.
4,116,900 [Source NZ Census 7 March 2006] – holds the record in pools per capita with 65,000 home Swimming pools and 125,000 spa pools).[citation needed] A two-storey, white concrete Swimming pool building composed of horizontal cubic volumes built in 1959 at the Royal Roads Military College is on the Registry of Historic Places of Canada.[10] According to the Guinness World Records, the largest Swimming pool in the world is San Alfonso del Mar Seawater pool in Algarrobo, Chile.
It is 1,013 m (3,323 ft) long and has an area of 8 ha (20 acres).
At its deepest, it is 3.5 m (11 ft) deep.[11] It was completed in December 2006.[12] The largest indoor wave pool in North America is at the West Edmonton Mall and the largest indoor pool is at the Neutral Buoyancy Lab in the Sonny Carter Training Facility at NASA JSC in Houston.[13][14] In 2014, the Y-40 Swimming pool at the Hotel Terme Millepini in Padua, Italy became the deepest indoor pool at 42.15 m (138.3 ft), certified by the Guinness Book of World Records[15] The recreational diving center Nemo 33 near Brussels, Belgium previously held the record (34.5 m (113 ft)) from May 2004 until the Y-40 was completed in June 2014.[16] The Fleishhacker Pool in San Francisco was the largest heated outdoor Swimming pool in the United States.
Opened on 23 April 1925, it measured 1,000 by 150 ft (300 by 50 m) and was so large that the lifeguards required kayaks for patrol.
It was closed in 1971 due to low patronage.[17] In Europe, the largest Swimming pool opened in 1934 in Elbląg (Poland), providing a water area of 33,500 square metres (361,000 sq ft).[18] One of the largest Swimming pools ever built was reputedly created in Moscow after the Palace of Soviets remained uncompleted.
The foundations of the palace were converted into the Moskva Pool open-air Swimming pool after the process of de-Stalinisation.[19] However, after the fall of communism, Christ the Saviour Cathedral was re-built on the site between 1995 and 2000; the cathedral had originally been located there.[citation needed] The highest Swimming pool is believed to be in Yangbajain (Tibet, China).
This resort is located at 4200 m AMSL and has two indoor Swimming pools and one outdoor Swimming pool, all filled with water from hot springs.[20] Length: Most pools in the world are measured in metres, but in the United States pools are often measured in feet and yards.
In the UK most pools are calibrated in metres, but older pools measured in yards still exist.
In the US, pools tend to either be 25 yards (SCY-short course yards), 25 metres (SCM-short course metres) or 50 metres (long course).
US high schools and the NCAA conduct short course (25 yards) competition.
There are also many pools 33⅓ m long, so that 3 lengths = 100 m.
This pool dimension is commonly used to accommodate water polo.[citation needed] USA Swimming (USA-S) swims in both metric and non-metric pools.
However, the international standard is metres, and world records are only recognized when swum in 50 m pools (or 25 m for short course) but 25-yard pools are very common in the US.
In general, the shorter the pool, the faster the time for the same distance, since the swimmer gains speed from pushing off the wall after each turn at the end of the pool.
Width: Most European pools are between 10 m and 50 m wide.[citation needed] Depth: The depth of a Swimming pool depends on the purpose of the pool, and whether it is open to the public or strictly for private use.
If it is a private casual, relaxing pool, it may go from 1.0 to 2.0 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) deep.
If it is a public pool designed for diving, it may slope from 3.0 to 5.5 m (10 to 18 ft) in the deep end.
A children's play pool may be from 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4 ft) deep.
Most public pools have differing depths to accommodate different swimmer requirements.
In many jurisdictions, it is a requirement to show the water depth with clearly marked depths affixed to the pool walls.[citation needed] Pools can be either indoors or outdoors.
They can be of any size and shape, and inground or above ground.
Most pools are permanent fixtures, while others are temporary, collapsible structures.
Private pools are usually smaller than public pools, on average 3.7 m × 7.3 m (12 ft × 24 ft) to 6.1 m × 12.2 m (20 ft × 40 ft) whereas public pools usually start at 24 m (80 ft).[citation needed] Home pools can be permanently built-in, or be assembled above ground and disassembled after summer.
Privately owned outdoor pools in backyards or gardens started to proliferate in the 1950s in regions with warm summer climates, particularly in the United States with desegregation.[21] Construction methods for private pools vary greatly.
The main types of in-ground pools are gunite shotcrete, concrete, vinyl-lined, and one-piece fiberglass shells.
Many countries now have strict pool fencing requirements for private Swimming pools, which require pool areas to be isolated so that unauthorized children younger than six years cannot enter.
Many countries require a similar level of protection for the children residing in or visiting the house, although many pool owners prefer the visual aspect of the pool in close proximity to their living areas, and will not provide this level of protection.
There is no consensus between states or countries on the requirements to fence private Swimming pools, and in many places they are not required at all, particularly in rural settings.[22] Inexpensive temporary polyvinyl chloride pools can be bought in supermarkets and taken down after summer.
They are used mostly outdoors in yards, are typically shallow, and often their sides are inflated with air to stay rigid.
When finished, the water and air can be let out and this type of pool can be folded up for convenient storage.
They are regarded in the Swimming pool industry as "splasher" pools intended for cooling off and amusing toddlers and children, not for swimming, hence the alternate name of "kiddie" pools.[citation needed] Toys are available for children and other people to play with in pool water.
They are often blown up with air so they are soft but still reasonably rugged, and can float in water.
Public pools are often part of a larger leisure centre or recreational complex.
These centres often have more than one pool, such as an indoor heated pool, an outdoor (chlorinated, saltwater or ozonated) pool which may be heated or unheated, a shallower children's pool, and a paddling pool for toddlers and infants.
There may also be a sauna and one or more hot tubs or spa pools ("jacuzzis").
Many upscale hotels and holiday resorts have a Swimming pool for use by their guests.
If a pool is in a separate building, the building may be called a natatorium.
The building may sometimes also have facilities for related activities, such as a diving tank.
Larger pools sometimes have a diving board affixed at one edge above the water.
Many public Swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but they can be any size and shape.
There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.
Some swimming facilities have lockers for clothing and other belongings.
The lockers can require a coin to be inserted in a slot, either as deposit or payment.
There are usually showers - sometimes mandatory - before and/or after swimming.
There are often also lifeguards to ensure the safety of users.
Wading or paddling pools are shallow bodies of water intended for use by small children, usually in parks.
Concrete wading pools come in many shapes, traditionally rectangle, square or circle.
Some are filled and drained daily due to lack of a filter system.
Staff chlorinate the water to ensure health and safety standards.[citation needed] The Fédération Internationale de la Natation (FINA, International Swimming Federation) sets standards for competition pools: 25 or 50 m (82 or 164 ft) long and at least 1.35 m (4.4 ft) deep.
Competition pools are generally indoors and heated to enable their use all year round, and to more easily comply with the regulations regarding temperature, lighting, and automatic officiating equipment.
An Olympic-size Swimming pool (first used at the 1924 Olympics) is a pool that meets FINA's additional standards for the Olympic Games and for world championship events.
It must be 50 by 25 m (164 by 82 ft) wide, divided into eight lanes of 2.5 m (8.2 ft) each, plus two areas of 2.5 m (8.2 ft) at each side of the pool.
Depth must be at least 2 m (6.6 ft).[23] The water must be kept at 25–28 °C (77–82 °F) and the lighting level at greater than 1500 lux.
There are also regulations for color of lane rope, positioning of backstroke flags (5 metres from each wall), and so on.[23] Pools claimed to be "Olympic pools" do not always meet these regulations, as FINA cannot police use of the term.
Touchpads are mounted on both walls for long course meets and each end for short course.
A pool may be referred to as fast or slow, depending on its physical layout.[24] Some design considerations allow the reduction of swimming resistance making the pool faster: namely, proper pool depth, elimination of currents, increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic and illumination designs.
In the last two decades, a new style of pool has gained popularity.
These consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 × 5 m) in which the swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices.
These pools have several names, such as swim spas, swimming machines, or swim systems.
They are all examples of different modes of resistance swimming.
Hot tubs and spa pools are common heated pools used for relaxation and sometimes for therapy.
Commercial spas are common in the Swimming pool area or sauna area of a health club or fitness centre, in men's clubs, women's clubs, motels and exclusive five-star hotel suites.
Spa clubs may have very large pools, some segmented into increasing temperatures.
In Japan, men's clubs with many spas of different size and temperature are common.
Commercial spas are generally made of concrete, with a mosaic tiled interior.
More recently with the innovation of the pre-form composite method where mosaic tiles are bonded to the shell this enables commercial spas to be completely factory manufactured to specification and delivered in one piece.
Hot tubs are typically made somewhat like a wine barrel with straight sides, from wood such as Californian redwood held in place by metal hoops.
Immersion of the head is not recommended in spas or hot tubs due to a potential risk of underwater entrapment from the pump suction forces.
However, commercial installations in many countries must comply with various safety standards which reduce this risk considerably.
Home spas are a worldwide retail item in western countries since the 1980s, and are sold in dedicated spa stores, pool shops, department stores, the Internet, and catalog sales books.
They are almost always made from heat-extruded acrylic sheet Perspex, often colored in marble look-alike patterns.
They rarely exceed 6 m2 (65 sq ft) and are typically 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep, restricted by the availability of the raw sheet sizes (typically manufactured in Japan).
There is often a mid-depth seating or lounging system, and contoured lounger style reclining seats are common.
Upmarket spas include various jet nozzles (massage, pulsating, etc.), a drinks tray, lights, LCD flat-screen TV sets and other features that make the pool a recreation center.
Due to their family-oriented nature, home spas are normally operated from 36 to 39 °C (97 to 102 °F).
Many pools are incorporated in a redwood or simulated wood surround, and are termed "portable" as they may be placed on a patio rather than sunken into a permanent location.
Some portable spas are shallow and narrow enough to fit sideways through a standard door and be used inside a room.
Low power electric immersion heaters are common with home spas.
Whirlpool tubs first became popular in America during the 1960s and 1970s.
A spa is also called a "jacuzzi" in USA since the word became a generic after plumbing component manufacturer Jacuzzi introduced the "spa whirlpool" in 1968.
Air bubbles may be introduced into the nozzles via an air-bleed venturi pump that combines cooler air with the incoming heated water to cool the pool if the temperature rises uncomfortably high.
Some spas have a constant stream of bubbles fed via the seating area of the pool, or a footwell area.
This is more common as a temperature control device where the heated water comes from a natural (uncontrolled heat) geothermal source, rather than artificially heated.
Water temperature is usually very warm to hot — 38 to 42 °C (100 to 108 °F), so bathers usually stay in for only 20 to 30 minutes.
Bromine or mineral sanitizers are often recommended as sanitizers for spas because chlorine dissipates at a high temperature thereby heightening its strong chemical smell.
Ozone is an effective bactericide and is commonly included in the circulation system with cartridge filtration, but not with sand media filtration due to clogging problems with turbid body fats.
In the early 20th century, especially in Australia, ocean pools were built, typically on headlands by enclosing part of the rock shelf, with water circulated through the pools by flooding from tidal tanks or by regular flooding over the side of the pools at high tide.
This continued a pre-European tradition of bathing in rockpools with many of the current sites being expanded from sites used by Aboriginal Australians or early European settlers.
Bathing in these pools provided security against both rough surf and sea life.
There were often separate pools for women and men, or the pool was open to the sexes at different times with a break for bathers to climb in without fear of observation by the other sex.[25] These were the forerunners of modern "Olympic" pools.
A variation was the later development of sea- or harbour-side pools that circulated sea water using pumps.
A pool of this type was the training ground for Australian Olympian Dawn Fraser.
There are currently about 100 ocean baths in New South Wales, which can range from small pools roughly 25 metres long and "Olympic Sized" (50m) to the very large, such as the 50 × 100 m baths in Newcastle.
While most are free, a number charge fees, such as the Bondi Icebergs Club pool at Bondi Beach.
Despite the development of chlorinated and heated pools, ocean baths remain a popular form of recreation in New South Wales.
A semi-natural ocean pool exists on the central coast of New South Wales; it is called The Bogey Hole.
An infinity edge pool (also named negative edge or vanishing edge pool) is a Swimming pool which produces a visual effect of water extending to the horizon, vanishing, or extending to "infinity".
Often, the water appears to fall into an ocean, lake, bay, or other similar body of water.
The illusion is most effective whenever there is a significant change in elevation, though having a natural body of water on the horizon is not a limiting factor.[citation needed] Natural pools were developed in central and western Europe in the early and mid-1980s by designers and landscape architects with environmental concerns.
They have recently been growing in popularity as an alternative to traditional Swimming pools.[26] Natural pools are constructed bodies of water in which no chemicals or devices that disinfect or sterilize water are used, and all the cleaning of the pool is achieved purely with the motion of the water through biological filters and plants rooted hydroponically in the system.
In essence, natural pools seek to recreate swimming holes and swimmable lakes, the environment where people feel safe swimming in a non-polluted, healthy, and ecologically balanced body of water.
Water in natural pools has many desirable characteristics.
For example, red eyes, dried-out skin and hair, and bleached bathing suits associated with overly chlorinated water are naturally absent in natural pools.[citation needed] Natural pools, by requiring a water garden to be a part of the system, offer different aesthetic options and can support amphibious wildlife such as snails, frogs, and salamanders, and even small fish if desired.
A zero-entry Swimming pool, also called a beach entry Swimming pool, has an edge or entry that gradually slopes from the deck into the water, becoming deeper with each step, in the manner of a natural beach.
As there are no stairs or ladders to navigate, this type of entry assists older people, young children and people with accessibility problems (e.g., people with a physical disability) where gradual entry is useful.
Indoor pools are located inside, under a roof and insulated by at least three walls.
Built for the purpose of year-round swimming or training, they are found in all climate types.
Since the pool room is insulated, it is less likely the heat will escape; making it less expensive to heat than an outdoor pool where the heat will escape.[27] Architecturally, the indoor pool may look like the rest of the house, but in terms of engineering, variables such as heating and ventilation are required to ensure comfortable humidity levels.
In addition to drainage and automatic pool covers, there are a number of ways to remove humidity in the air that is present with any wet indoor environment.
Efficient dehumidification in the indoor pool environment prevents structural damage, lowers energy costs in addition to improving the room's climate to make it a comfortable swimming environment.
Swimming pools are also used for events such as synchronized swimming, water polo, canoe polo and underwater sports such as underwater hockey, underwater rugby, finswimming and sport diving as well as for teaching diving, lifesaving and scuba diving techniques.
They have also been used for specialist tasks such as teaching water-ditching survival techniques for aircraft and submarine crews and astronaut training.
Round-cornered, irregular Swimming pools, such as the Nude Bowl, were drained of water and used for vertical skateboarding.
Levels of bacteria and viruses in Swimming pool water must be kept low to prevent the spread of diseases and pathogens.
Bacteria, algae and insect larvae can enter the pool if water is not properly sanitized.
Pumps, mechanical sand filters, and disinfectants are often used to sanitise the water.
Chemical disinfectants, such as chlorine (usually as a hypochlorite salt, such as calcium hypochlorite) and bromine, are commonly used to kill pathogens.
If not properly maintained, chemical sanitation can produce high levels of disinfection byproducts.
Sanitized Swimming pool water can theoretically appear green if a certain amount of iron salts or copper chloride are present in the water.[28] Acesulfame potassium has been used to estimate how much urine is discharged by swimmers into a pool.[29] In a Canadian study it was estimated that swimmers had released 75 litres of urine into a large pool that had about 830,000 litres of water and was a third of the size of an olympic pool.
Hot tubs were found to have higher readings of the marker.
While urine itself is sterile, its degradation products may lead to asthma.[29] Swimming pool heating costs can be significantly reduced by using a pool cover.
Use of a pool cover also can help reduce the amount of chemicals (chlorine, etc.) required by the pool.
Outdoor pools gain heat from the sun, absorbing 75–85% of the solar energy striking the pool surface.
Though a cover decreases the total amount of solar heat absorbed by the pool, the cover eliminates heat loss due to evaporation and reduces heat loss at night through its insulating properties.
Most Swimming pool heat loss is through evaporation.[30] The heating effectiveness of a cover depends on type.
A transparent bubble cover is the most effective, as it allows the largest amount of solar flux into the pool itself.
Thermal bubble covers are lightweight UV-stabilized floating covers designed to minimize heat loss on heated Swimming pools.
Typically they are only fitted in spring and fall (autumn) when the temperature difference between pool water and air temperature is greatest.
When used consistently they can raise average pool temperatures of an outdoor pool by around 18 °Fahrenheit (11 °Celsius) when combined with a well sized solar pool heating system, or about 11° Fahrenheit (6 °Celsius) without a solar heater but with full sun exposure.[31] Bubble covers are typically applied and removed by being rolled up on a device fitted to one side of the pool (see illustration).
Covers fall apart after four or five years due to sun exposure, overheating in the sun while off the pool, and chlorine attacking the plastic.
Bubble covers should be removed during super chlorination.
A vinyl cover absorbs more sunlight directly, allowing temperature to rise faster, but ultimately prevents the pool from reaching as high a temperature as a clear cover.[32] Vinyl covers consist of a heavier material and have a longer life expectancy than bubble covers.
Insulated vinyl covers are also available with a thin layer of flexible insulation sandwiched between two layers of vinyl.[32] These covers are mandatory[citation needed] to be fitted to all pools in areas of Australia that have experienced drought since 2006.
This is an effort to conserve water, as much water evaporates and transpires.
An alternative to a continuous sheet of pool covering is multiple floating disks which are deployed and removed disk by disk.
They cover most of the surface of the pool and offer evaporation reduction similar to continuous covers.
Various types are available, for example opaque (for UV resistance and possible reduced algal growth), transparent (for esthetics), heavy and solid (for wind resistance), light and inflatable (for ease of handling).
Liquid covers are also an option.
They use a microscopically thin layer of liquid (such as cetyl alcohol) that sits on the water surface and reduces evaporation, which is one of the major sources of heat loss as well as water loss.
Unlike other covers, the pool can be used while the liquid cover is in place, and the nontoxic material is safe for people as well as pumping / filtering systems.
The liquid must be replenished regularly (monthly or more), and may not be effective in windy areas (since the wind will disperse the thin layer).
These covers are typically attached all winter, by hooked bungee cords or hooked springs connected to the pool deck, and are usually made in a variety of materials including coated or laminated vinyl or polypropylene mesh.
They are custom designed to stop leaf debris from entering the pool but more importantly they also provide safety for animals and small children when designed and installed properly.
The custom safety cover was invented in 1957 by Fred Meyer Jr.
of Meyco Pool Covers when he found a dead animal in his pool.
Today covers are made to meet ASTM safety barrier standards and have kept animals, people and even large vehicles out of the pool.
They are not popular in warmer climates, due to the five to ten minutes it takes to fit/remove them, making them inconvenient for repeated application and removal.
A pool cover can be either manually, semi-automatically, or automatically operated.
Manual covers can be folded and stored in an off site location.
Pool cover reels can also be used to help manually roll up the pool cover.
The reel, usually on wheels, can be rolled in or out of place.
Semi-automatic covers use a motor-driven reel system.
They use electrical power to roll and unroll the cover, but usually require someone to pull on the cover when unrolling, or guide the cover onto the reel when rolling up the cover.
Semi-automatic covers can be built into the pool deck surrounding the pool, or can use reels on carts.
Automatic covers have permanently mounted reels that automatically cover and uncover the pool at the push of a button.
They are the most expensive option, but are also the most convenient.
These reels can be run from either an external motor requiring a pit to be dug beside the pool or using an internal motor that spins the reel.
Some pool covers fit into tracks along the sides of the pool.
This prevents anything or anybody from getting into the pool.
They even support the weight of several people.
They can be run manually, semi-automatically, or automatically.
Safety covers may be required by inspectors for public pools.[32] In areas which reach freezing temperature, it is important to close a pool properly.
This varies greatly between in-ground and above-ground pools.
By taking steps to properly secure the pool, it lessens the likelihood that the superstructure will be damaged or compromised by freezing water.[33] In preparation for freezing temperatures, an in-ground Swimming pool's pipes must be emptied.
An above-ground pool should also be closed, so that ice does not drag down the pool wall, collapsing its structure.
The plumbing is sealed with air, typically with rubber plugs, to prevent cracking from freezing water.
The pool is typically covered to prevent leaves and other debris from falling in.
The cover is attached to the pool typically using a stretch cord, similar to a bungee cord and hooks fitted into the pool surround.
The skimmer is closed off or a floating device is placed into it to prevent it from completely freezing and cracking.
Floating objects such as life rings or basketballs can be placed in the pool to avoid its freezing under the cover.
Sand or DE filters must be backwashed, with the main drain plug removed and all water drained out.
Drain plugs on the pool filter are removed after the filter has been cleaned.
The pool pump motor is taken under cover.
Winter chemicals are added to keep the pool clean.
The innovation of a composite construction of fibreglass, with an epoxy coating and porcelain ceramic tiles has led to the Pre-form, Composite-type with significant advantages over older methods; however, it also has increased sensitivity to metal staining.
In climates where there is no risk of freezing, closing down the pool for winter is not so important.
Typically, the thermal cover is removed and stored.
Winter sunlight can create an algae mess when a cover that has been left on all winter is removed.
The pool is correctly pH-balanced and super-chlorinated.
One part algaecide for every 50,000 parts of pool water should be added, and topped up each month.
The pool should be filtered for one to two hours daily to keep the automated chlorination system active.[citation needed] Pools pose a risk of drowning, which may be significant for swimmers who are inexperienced, suffer from seizures, or are susceptible to a heart or respiratory condition.
Lifeguards are employed at most pools to execute water rescues and administer first aid as needed in order to reduce this risk.
Diving in shallow areas of a pool may also lead to significant head and neck injuries; diving, especially head-first diving, should be done in the deepest point of the pool, minimally 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in), but desirably 3.7 m (12 ft), deeper if the distance between the water and the board is great.
Pools also present a risk of death due to drowning, particularly in young children.
In regions where residential pools are common, drowning is a major cause of childhood death.
As a precaution, many jurisdictions require that residential pools be enclosed with fencing to restrict unauthorized access.
Many products exist, such as removable baby fences.
The evidence for floating alarms and window/door alarms to reduce the risk of drowning is poor.[34] Some pools are equipped with computer-aided drowning prevention or other forms of electronic safety and security systems.
Suspended ceilings in indoor Swimming pools are safety-relevant components.
The selection of materials under tension should be done with care.
Especially the selection of unsuitable stainless steels can cause problems with stress corrosion cracking.[35] In public Swimming pools, dress code may be stricter than on public beaches, and in indoor pools stricter than outdoor pools.
For example, in countries where women can be topless on the beach, this is often not allowed in a Swimming pool, and a swimsuit must be worn.
For men, wearing ordinary shorts and a tee shirt to go in the water at a beach may be considered acceptable, but pools usually require real swim suits or other dedicated water wear.
Swimming with regular clothes on is not only unhygienic,[citation needed] but can potentially weigh a swimmer down should he or she need to be rescued.
In France and some other European countries, board shorts are usually not allowed for hygienic reasons.
In Nordic countries and in particular Iceland, rules about clothing and hygiene are especially strict.[36] When diving from a high board, swim suits are sometimes worn doubled up (one brief inside another) in case the outer suit tears on impact with the water.
Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion is a landmark public pavilion in the Sunnyside lakefront area of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Built in 1922, its original function was to provide changing facilities for swimming in Lake Ontario, however lake conditions were often too cold and an adjoining public swimming pool was built in 1925.
The Pavilion was renovated in 1980 to provide updated changing facilities and a café along the beach and a garden.
By the 1920s, swimming at the foot of Roncesvalles Avenue had been popular for over thirty years, as there was a swimming area near a pumping station.
This changed in 1913 when the pumping station was demolished to make way for the bridge connecting Lakeshore Road and the King/Queen/Roncesvalles intersection.
A staircase was built for pedestrians to walk down to the shoreline.
A slide was installed for bathers to slide down into the water.
By 1920, this area was filled in and the beach was moved farther to the south.
For the year 1921, the beach was recorded as having over 302,525 visitors.[1] On June 28, 1922, Toronto Mayor Charles A.
Maguire opened the Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion to help bathers change for the swim in the lake.
The building, constructed of concrete, cost $300,000.
Each wing held an outdoor changing area, lockers and showers, the women's side on the east, and men's side on the west.
It offered over 7,700 lockers for patrons, a roof garden for 400.
Admission fees were 25¢ for adults and 15¢ for children, and bathing suits and towels could be rented.[2] In the center was a staircase leading to an upper terrace which overlooked the change areas leading to a rear terrace which ran the full length of the building and overlooked the beach.
The building was designed by Alfred Chapman who had designed the Princes' Gates and the Ontario Government Building at Exhibition Place for the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE).
The bathing pavilion design was based on the bathing pavilion at Lynn Beach in Massachusetts.[3] The Pavilion was the site of the first 'Miss Toronto' beauty pageant in 1926.
On July 29, 1925, due to coldness of the lake during the preceding two summers, the Sunnyside Pool, nicknamed the 'Tank', was opened beside the Bathing Pavilion to the east.
It measured 300 feet (91 m) by 75 feet (23 m) and could accommodate 2,000 swimmers.
At the time of construction, the pool was considered the largest outdoor swimming pool in the world.[4] Admission fees were 35¢ for adults, 10¢ for children.
The 'Tank' was especially popular with children as special streetcar runs were made to take children to the Pool directly from around the City.
When built, the pool had a diving tower and bleachers on the east end.
The tower was replaced with a simple diving board before 1980, and the diving board itself was eventually removed.
The bleachers have been replaced by an equipment building.
The Sunnyside Bathing Pavilion was renovated in 1980.
The outdoor lockers and changing areas were demolished and new changing rooms were built.
The pool was rededicated as the 'Gus Ryder Pool', named after Marilyn Bell's coach, the founder and coach of the Lakeshore Swim Club of New Toronto.
The east wing of the pavilion, which formerly held the outdoor women's changing area became a new enclosed changing facility with new men's and women's changing areas.
The former entrance from the archway area was closed and a new entrance was cut in the north wall to enter the changing area.
The west wing, which formerly held the men's changing area, now houses a cafe with patio on the boardwalk and a tea garden.
An opening was made in the western wall opening onto the adjacent parklands.
The central section and upstairs terrace is used as a public space for functions, such as wedding receptions, catered by the cafe below.
The pool was closed for renovations for most of the summer of 2010.
Intended to reopen in July, the pool reopened for a short period at the end of August, using a temporary water heater.
A June storm destroyed some pool equipment, including custom pool heaters for the pool.[5] The south side of the facility is home to the cafe, and fronts onto the boardwalk and the beach.
The cafe is open from spring to fall.
Sunnyside Pool is open for swimming during the summer, starting in June and ending in September.
In 2012, the pool is open from 10 AM until 8 PM, with a break from 3:45 PM until 5 PM.
During heat alerts, the pool stays open until 11:45 PM.
The pool has regular swimming instruction leading to "Bronze Medallion" certification.[6] Swimming at the pool is free, however there is a charge for instruction programs.
To the east of the pool is an outdoor wading pool and a children's playground.
South of the pavilion, the beach is available for beach volleyball.
The lake is fit for swimming most of the summer, except for days after rainstorms when bacteria counts are high.
On Canada Day, the pavilion and park is often the site of picnics or music festivals.
In 2011, a small music festival, the "Canada Day Picnic" played live and recorded "house" music from 1 PM until 11 PM on July 1.[7] In other years, the music has been country and other forms.
In September, the upper terrace is used for the annual Sunnyside Beach Juried Art Show & Sale.[8] The show takes place over a weekend and includes live music.
Admission is free.[8] Coordinates: 43°38′16″N 79°27′23″W / 43.637737°N 79.456301°W / 43.637737; -79.456301
Robert Matthew Van Winkle (born October 31, 1967), better known by his stage name Vanilla Ice, is an American rapper, actor, and television host.
Born in South Dallas, and raised in Texas and South Florida, Ice released his debut album, Hooked, in 1989 on Ichiban Records, before signing a contract with SBK Records, a record label of the EMI Group, which released a reformatted version of the album in 1990 under the title To the Extreme, which contained Ice's best-known hits: "Ice Ice Baby" and a cover of "Play That Funky Music".
"Ice Ice Baby" was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts.
Although he was successful, Ice later regretted his business arrangements with SBK, which had paid him to adopt a more commercial appearance to appeal to a mass audience and published fabricated biographical information without his knowledge.
After surviving a suicide attempt, Ice changed his musical style and lifestyle.
While his later, less mainstream albums failed to chart or receive much radio airplay, Ice has had an underground following.
In 2009, Ice began hosting The Vanilla Ice Project on DIY Network.
His latest album, WTF – Wisdom, Tenacity & Focus, was released in August 2011.
After that, Ice signed to Psychopathic Records.
Robert Matthew Van Winkle was born in Dallas, Texas, on October 31, 1967.[6] Van Winkle has never known his biological father; he was given the family name of the man his mother was married to at the time of his birth.[7] When Van Winkle was four, his mother divorced.
Afterward, he grew up moving between Dallas and Miami,[8] where his new stepfather worked at a car dealership.[7] Van Winkle was affected by hip hop at an early age, saying "It's a very big passion of mine because I love poetry.
I was just heavily influenced by that whole movement and it's molded me into who I am today."[9] Between the ages of 13 and 14, Van Winkle practiced breakdancing, which led to his friends nicknaming him "Vanilla", as he was the only one in the group who was not black.[10][11] Although he disliked the nickname, it stuck.
Shortly afterward, Van Winkle started battle rapping at parties and because of his rhymes, his friends started calling him "MC Vanilla".
However, when he became a member of a breakdance troupe, Van Winkle's stage name was "Vanilla Ice" combining his nickname "Vanilla" with one of his breakdance moves; "The Ice".[12] When Ice's stepfather was offered a better job in Carrollton, Texas, he moved back to Texas with his mother.
When Ice was not learning to ride motorbikes, he was dancing as a street performer with his breakdancing group, now called The Vanilla Ice Posse.
Ice wrote "Ice Ice Baby" at the age of 16, basing its lyrics on a weekend he had with friend and disc jockey D-Shay in South Florida.[13] The lyrics describe Ice and Shay on a drug run that ends in a drive-by shooting while praising Ice's rhyming skills.[14] In 1985, he was focusing all of his energy on motocross, winning three championships.[15] After breaking his ankle during a race, Ice was not interested in racing professionally for some time, using his spare time to perfect his dance moves and creating his own while his ankle was healing.
Ice used his beatboxing and breakdancing skills as a street performer with his friends at local malls during this time.[16] One evening he visited City Lights, a South Dallas nightclub, where he was dared to go on stage by his friend Squirrel during an open-mic.
He won the crowd over and was asked by City Lights manager John Bush if he wanted to perform regularly, which he accepted.
Ice would be joined on stage with his disc jockey D-Shay and Zero as well as Earthquake, the local disc jockey at City Lights.
The Vanilla Ice Posse or The V.I.P.
would also perform with Ice on stage.[10] As a performer for City Lights, Ice opened up for N.W.A, Public Enemy, The D.O.C., Tone Lōc, 2 Live Crew, Paula Abdul, Sinbad and MC Hammer.[17] In January 1987, Ice was stabbed five times during a scuffle outside of City Lights.
After spending ten days at the hospital, Ice signed a contract with the owner of City Lights, Tommy Quon and his management company, Ultrax.[18][19] Two years later, Ice would open for EPMD, Ice-T, Stetsasonic, and Sir Mix-A-Lot on the Stop the Violence Tour.[20][21] Quon saw commercial potential in Ice's rapping and dancing skills.[8][22] Buying studio time with Quon's earnings from City Lights, they recorded songs that had been perfected on stage by Ice and his acquaintances with various producers, including Khayree.
The two year production was distributed by an independent record company called Ichiban Records in 1989.[23] "Play That Funky Music" was released as the album's first single, with "Ice Ice Baby" appearing as the B-side.[19][24] Tommy Quon personally sent out the single to various radio stations around the US, but the single was seldom played and when it was, it did not get the reaction Quon was hoping for.
When disc jockey Darrell Jaye in Georgia played "Ice Ice Baby" instead of the single's A-side, the song gained a quick fanbase and other radio stations followed suit.[19] Quon financed $8,000 for the production of a music video for "Ice Ice Baby",[25][26] which received heavy airplay by The Box, increasing public interest in the song.[27] Following the success of "Ice Ice Baby", record producer Suge Knight and two bodyguards arrived at The Palm in West Hollywood, where Ice was eating.
After shoving Ice's bodyguards aside, Knight and his own bodyguards sat down in front of Ice, staring at him before finally asking "How you doin'?"[28] Similar incidents were repeated on several occasions.
Eventually, Knight showed up at Ice's hotel suite on the fifteenth floor of the Bel Age Hotel, accompanied by a member of the Los Angeles Raiders football team.[28] According to Ice, Knight took him out on the balcony by himself, and implied that he would throw him off the balcony unless he signed the publishing rights to the song over to Knight; Knight used Ice's money to help fund Death Row Records.[21][29] On the basis of Ice's good looks and dance moves, Public Enemy tried to convince their producer, Hank Shocklee, to sign Ice to Def Jam,[30] but Ice later signed a contract with SBK Records in 1990.
SBK remixed and re-recorded Hooked under the title To the Extreme.
The reissue contained new artwork and music.[31] According to Ice, SBK paid him to adopt a more commercial, conventional appearance.
This led Ice to later regret his business agreements with SBK.[32] To the Extreme became the fastest selling hip hop album of all time,[33] spending sixteen weeks at #1 on the Billboard 200[34] and selling eleven million copies.[35] SBK Record executive Monte Lipman stated that he received calls from radio stations reporting over 200 phone calls requesting Ice Ice Baby.
SBK wanted Ice on the road as soon as possible.
MC Hammer, an old acquaintance from his club days, had Ice on as an opening act on his tour.[36] Reviews of To the Extreme were mixed.
Entertainment Weekly reviewer Mim Udovitch gave the album a B, citing "Ice Ice Baby", "Play That Funky Music", "Dancin'" and "It's a Party" as the album's highlights.[37] Robert Christgau gave the album a C− rating, writing that Ice's "suave sexism, fashionably male supremacist rather than dangerously obscene, is no worse than his suave beats".[38] Criticizing the technique and style of Vanilla Ice, Allrovi reviewer Steve Huey wrote: Ice's mic technique is actually stronger and more nimble than MC Hammer's, and he really tries earnestly to show off the skills he does have.
Unfortunately, even if he can keep a mid-tempo pace, his flow is rhythmically stiff, and his voice has an odd timbre; plus, he never seems sure of the proper accent to adopt.
He's able to overcome those flaws somewhat in isolated moments, but they become all too apparent over the course of an entire album.[31]In late 1990, Ice began an eight-month relationship with Madonna, and appeared in photographs for her book, Sex.[39][40] In the height of Ice's popularity, SBK licensed a 12" doll which was made by THQ.
In January 1991, he was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live.
Ice branched out into the film industry with an appearance in the film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze, which he later called "one of the coolest experiences" of his career.[8] Ice was very secretive about his personal life, with the intention of protecting his family.
When a Dallas Morning News reporter asked Ice what his mother's profession was, he replied, "None of your fucking business."[41] In an attempt to rectify this, his former label wrote a fake biography in his name and tried to pass it off as his official life story without his knowledge.
While on tour in 1991, Ice found out that SBK had instigated the publication of the biography which detailed false biographical information, including claims that he had attended school with Luther Campbell and exaggerating his living conditions in Miami, which Ice later had to debunk by himself.[42] Ice's second major release was the live album Extremely Live, released in March 1991.
The album was a live recording during Vanilla Ice's performance in Miami during his To The Extreme tour.
Premiering new songs like Rollin' in My 5.0, Road To My Riches and Satisfaction, the album peaked at #30 on the Billboard 200,[43] but it received mainly negative reviews, with Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne calling it "one of the most ridiculous albums ever released", comparing it to The Best of Marcel Marceau, an album which consisted of two sides of silence opened by brief applause.
According to Browne, Extremely Live "affords you the chance to hear inane stage patter [...] and unaccompanied drumming, during which, one assumes, Ice and his posse are onstage dancing."[44] Monte Lipman later stated that SBK only released the live disc to make more money from Ice's fame.
In April 1991, Ice began to film the SBK produced Cool as Ice, in which he played a leading role.[45] Cool as Ice opened on October 18, 1991 in 393 theaters in the United States, grossing $638,000, ranking at #14 among the week's new releases.[46] Reviews of the film were negative.
Film website Rotten Tomatoes, which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics, gives the film a score of 8%.[47] Ice received a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star.[48] SBK stated that they overexposed Ice and Ice decided to stop taking their business advice as well as distancing himself from the image that SBK was trying to create for him.
In late 1991, Ice appeared in the Circus of the Stars and Sideshow, driving his motorcycle through a wall of fire.
While his fame in the United States had severely dropped, Ice continued touring in 1992, playing in South America, Europe, Australia and Asia, premiering new songs like "Get Loose", "The Wrath", "Now & Forever", "Where the Dogs At? (All Night Long)", "Minutes of Power" and "Iceman Party".
After a performance in Acapulco, the city honored Ice with a medal that represented "all the respect and admiration to [Ice's] music and to [him] as an artist from the Mexican people".[49] Ice also served as a spokesperson for Nike and Coca-Cola throughout 1991 and 1992.[50] In 1993, Ice toured Eastern Europe again and premiered songs off his upcoming album in St.
Petersburg, Russia in front of President Boris Yeltsin.[51] After almost non-stop touring for the previous three years, Ice took a break from music in 1993 and began competing in jet skiing.[52] as well as resuming Motocross racing.[53] By 1994, Ice received less publicity and faded from the public spotlight.
After becoming more interested with the Rastafari movement, Ice became a vegetarian,[54] grew dreadlocks and talked more openly about smoking cannabis.[55] On March 22, 1994, Ice released his second studio album, Mind Blowin'.
Reviews were unfavorable.
Entertainment Weekly reviewer James Bernard called the album "more clunky than funky".[56] Rolling Stone reviewer Danyel Smith praised the song "Get Loose" as "snappy", writing that although the lyrics are "inane", "the song is a thumping party, one of the few places where Ice loosens up.
He sounds solid at the beginning of 'The Wrath' as well ...
In 'Now and Forever,' a wet dream kind of song, Ice goes back to goofy lyrics."[citation needed] Allrovi reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "There isn't a single moment that establishes a distinct musical identity, and the whole thing is rather embarrassing."[57] Primus bassist Les Claypool stated in response to Ice's cannabis-oriented lyrics: "That's all fine and dandy and cute, but it could be misconstrued and manipulated by the wrong people."[58] When asked about the drug oriented sound years later, Vanilla Ice said "A lot of the record is drug oriented because I was doing a lot of drugs at the time".
Shortly afterward, SBK went bankrupt.[citation needed] At around this time, Ice began using ecstasy, cocaine and heroin.
During periods of heavy drug use, Ice received many tattoos from artist acquaintances.
According to Ice, he "was in [his] binge days.
[He] didn't even realize how many [he] was getting".[59] Ice attempted suicide with a heroin overdose on July 4, 1994, but was revived by his friends.[citation needed] After being revived, Ice decided that it was time to change his lifestyle.
As a symbol of his attempt to begin anew, he got a tattoo of a leaf on his stomach.[59] After expanding his Mind Blowin tour overseas in 1995, Ice sold his estate in California and took a break from music, rather focusing on motocrossing and jet skiing in Florida.
By the summer, Ice was the world's No.
6-ranked sit-down jet ski racer, competing nearly every weekend and earning a Kawasaki sponsorship.[55] Uncertain about his future career, Ice studied real estate and started working on the side renovating and selling houses.
In late 1995, he set up a recording studio in Miami and joined a grunge band, Pickin Scabz.
The name was set to reflect Ice's career, and how he was healing from his suicide attempt, and that he was now "picking up the pieces".[20] Ice expressed an interest in performing hip hop-influenced rock music, but found that the band was unable to produce the sound he was looking for.[citation needed] In 1996, longtime associate and friend Monte Lipman signed Ice for Universal Republic Records.
He did guest vocals with no stage name for the song "Boom" by Bloodhound Gang on their CD One Fierce Beer Coaster.
Ice later developed a friendship with producer Ross Robinson, who had become known for producing music by Deftones, Korn, Limp Bizkit and Sepultura.
Robinson and Ice shared an interest in motocross racing.[20] Monte Lipman hoped that Robinson would produce a new Vanilla Ice album.
According to Robinson, others had attempted to discourage him from working with Ice, saying it might hurt his reputation.
Rather than being dissuaded, Robinson was encouraged by their reticence and agreed to work with Ice.
In an interview, Robinson stated, "It's the most punk-rock thing you could do."[60] Despite not being happy with his old image, Van Winkle stated that he never had a problem with his older music.
He decided against changing his stage name, as he felt no need to run from his past, despite being uneasy with some of it, and started performing again, booking a hundred shows a year.[17] Ice's third studio album, Hard to Swallow, featured a darker sound and lyrics than Ice's previous work, as well as various mixtures of different styles of hip hop and hard rock, which garnered media attention.
Ice attracted a whole new audience when he started touring again, some who were even unfamiliar with his more mainstream sound.[61] Despite the album gaining its own audience and going Gold, reviews were generally negative.
Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote, "The most earnest new song, Scars, condemns an abusive father.
The sentiments would sound more genuine if Korn hadn't gotten there first."[62] Richard Torres of Rolling Stone gave the album two out of five stars, writing that while "nothing, however, can redeem Ice's wack boasting," the album "isn't half-bad."[63] In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, Rob Kemp gave the album three out of five stars, writing that it contained Ice's "most convincing music".[64] A lot of executives at SonyBMG were predicting that the album would do better than 'To The Extreme'.
In promotion of Hard to Swallow, Ice toured with a seven-piece live band which included future Weezer bassist Scott Shriner.[65] The band opened with rock-oriented material from Hard to Swallow and concluded with older hip hop songs.[66] The setlist also included "Power", based upon Led Zeppelin's "Immigrant Song".[67] Ice said that writing the songs and performing them were like therapy, as he had tried to hide his anger when making his older songs but Robinson was the first producer who told him to use it to create.[citation needed] Vanilla Ice was a member of the softball team The Hip Hop Stars alongside Dr.
Dre, Snoop Dogg and Method Man in a 1999 game shown on MTV Rock N' Jock .
Later in 1999, MTV asked Vanilla Ice to join their cast to "retire" the music video for "Ice Ice Baby" on the MTV special 25 Lame, in which Ice himself was asked to destroy the video's master tape.
When Ice was given a baseball bat, he ended up destroying not only the film but the show's entire set as well.[40][68] In 2001, DJ ReAnimator remixed "Ice Ice Baby" with Vanilla Ice re-doing his vocals for the track.
Ice Ice Baby 2001 was released as a single and music video for the European market, spawning a wave of new overseas interest in Vanilla Ice.[69] Having attracted a following outside of his former mainstream audience, Ice began recording independently, despite still being signed to Universal.
During a recording session, Ice met the all-female American hard rock band from Southern California, Betty Blowtorch.
The late Bianca Halstead bonded with Ice and asked if he wanted to contribute a rap interlude to their track Size Queen.
On Ice's collaboration with the band, lead vocalist and bassist Halstead was quoted saying, "I asked him if he could rap over [the track] and he said he can rap over anything.
And he could!"[70] Per his stepfather's request, Ice started working with his former manager Tommy Quon again.
While hoping to re-create some of the magic that they worked hard on in the early 1990s, Ice denied any interest in trying to become big again, stating that his only passion was music, not fame.[11] In May 2000, Ice wrestled in a match promoted by Juggalo Championship Wrestling, then known as Juggalo Championshit Wrestling, filling in for Insane Clown Posse member Shaggy 2 Dope, who had been injured during a match.
MTV News reported that Insane Clown Posse would make an appearance on Ice's next album, tentatively titled Bomb Tha System.[71] In October 2000, Ice announced that his next album would be titled Skabz, and that Chuck D was confirmed to appear on the album.
It was initially planned as a double album featuring a disc containing rock-oriented material and a disc of hip hop songs.[72] In July 2001, Ice performed at the second Gathering of the Juggalos.[73] On October 23, 2001, Skabz and Bomb Tha System were released together as Bi-Polar.[72] The album also featured La the Darkman, Perla, Insane Poetry and Bob Kakaha.
Bradley Torreano of Allrovi disliked the album, criticizing it as "wildly uneven and at times hilariously bad", but also stating "Vanilla Ice is still better than a lot of the rap-metal bands that erupted in 2000/2001." and the rap beats on Bomb Tha System "are surprisingly solid".[74] In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, Rob Kemp gave the album one out of five stars, calling the album "utterly listless".[64] According to a Sony BMG executive, sales of Bi-Polar were "not bad...for Vanilla Ice.
That's pretty respectable.
Seriously."[75][76] With Quon back as manager, Ice was scheduled to appear in various reality TV programs.
Ice, still an entertainer at heart, felt that the experience would be good for him.
In 2002, he appeared on Celebrity Boxing, fighting Todd Bridges under the name 'Bi-Polar'.
In 2003, he appeared in five episodes of Hollywood Squares, eight episodes on 'The Farm' and three episodes of Celebrity Bull Riding Challenge, and made a cameo appearance in The New Guy in 2002.
Around this time, Vanilla Ice also returned to the world of motocross.
He auditioned for the 2002 X Games in the freestyle division and placed seventh at the 2003 Suzuki Crossover challenge, according to Sports Illustrated.
He told the magazine that the track "is where I'm happiest."[77] In 2003, Ice contributed vocals to "Off the Chain" by 7x70, a side project of Iron Maiden drummer Nicko McBrain and Anthrax guitarist Dan Spitz.
A demo of the song was leaked in June.[78][79] In 2003, Ultrax reissued Bomb Tha System (the second part of "Bi-Polar") under the title Hot Sex, which was a single from the original album.[76] From January to February 2004, Ice appeared on the reality television series The Surreal Life.[11] Although much of the series was staged, Ice found the experience to be therapeutic, stating that a comment made by Tammy Faye Messner during filming, "We are who we are because of who we were", helped him accept his past.[42] On August 2, 2005, Ice released his fifth studio album, Platinum Underground.
He stated that the title of the album reflected the fact that he could maintain a fanbase without mainstream airplay.[11] Allrovi reviewer Rob Theakston panned the album, writing that it "has more bad spots in it than most".[80] Ice included a song titled Ninja Rap 2, which was set to be a hardcore remix.
Aside from the name, the song has very little connection to Ice's original 1991 single, but rather talks about his appreciation of his fans, his love of performing at clubs and playing at the Gathering of the Juggalos with Insane Clown Posse.
Ninja Rap 2 was the first song to be released from Platinum Underground and was available to download for free off of Ice's official website.
In 2007, Ice returned to a spin-off of The Surreal Life titled The Surreal Life: Fame Games, where he again trashed the set after being voted off.
In September 2008, Ice signed a contract with Cleopatra Records, recording the cover album Vanilla Ice Is Back! at the label's request.[81] The album was released on November 4, 2008, and contained covers of songs by Public Enemy, House of Pain, Bob Marley, and Cypress Hill.
IGN reviewer Spence D.
called the album "an embarrassing endeavor that sounds like it should have stayed locked inside Ice's studio (or at the very least leaked on YouTube and passed off as a piss take)."[82] On February 27, 2009, Ice performed as part of a joint performance with MC Hammer in Orem, Utah, called "Hammer Pants And Ice", which featured twenty four dancers and a full choir.[83] In August 2009, Ice announced on his official Twitter account that he had signed a contract with StandBy Records; however, Ice later left the label.[84] Ice was a special musical guest at the 2010 National Television Awards in January, performing with Jedward for their remix and debut single "Under Pressure (Ice Ice Baby)".
Ice also recorded his verse for their album Planet Jedward and appeared in the music video.
He was a part of The Back2Kool concert tour with Turbo B and MC Hammer, playing worldwide in late 2010, and reunited with his former DJ, Floyd 'Earthquake' Brown, for the shows overseas.
In early 2011, Vanilla Ice appeared on the sixth season of the UK show Dancing on Ice, as well as various ice skating tours surrounding the show.[85] In 2009, Ice started filming a reality television series called The Vanilla Ice Project, which premiered on DIY Network on October 14, 2010.
The season was focused on renovating a house in Palm Beach, Florida, with each episode dedicated to a different room in the house.[8][86] In 2011, Ice published a book on the subject, Vanilla Ice Project – Real Estate Guide, on how to succeed in real estate.
The book was made available as a free digital download on his real estate website.[87] The second season began airing in January 2012, the third season in January 2013.
In June 2011, Ice filmed a role in the movie That's My Boy, starring Adam Sandler and Andy Samberg, (released in 2012).[88] In the film, Ice portrays an exaggerated version of himself called Uncle Vanny.
While shooting, he collaborated with Samberg and Sandler musically.[89] In August, Ice performed at the 2011 Gathering of the Juggalos, where it was officially announced that he had signed with Psychopathic Records.[90] His sixth studio album, WTF, was released on August 19 through Radium Records.
While the record featured an array of different styles, like other recent Vanilla Ice albums, it also featured Ice's return to Electronica, with songs like "Turn It Up", "Rock Star Party", "Nightmare Disco" and "Cadillac Ninjas".[91][92] Regarding the new record and its numerous musical genres, Ice said, "It's like techno hip-hop.
European.
I live a lot in Europe, and when I'm over there I get way into the techno stuff and I get into new music.
So I thought I'd make a record of it.
I did the thing and it was a lot of fun".[93] In December 2011, Ice played Captain Hook in the Chatham, Kent, Central Theatre pantomime production of Peter Pan, a role that previously belonged to Henry Winkler.[94] He also turned on the Christmas lights for Rochester, Kent, in Rochester Castle, as part of the promotion for the panto.[95] On May 12, 2012, Vanilla Ice helped in the launch of the Mr.
Freeze Reverse Blast roller coaster at Six Flags over Texas in Arlington with a free concert for valid daily park ticket or 2012 Season Pass holders.[96] In mid 2013, Vanilla Ice joined the New Kids on the Block tour alongside Boyz II Men.
On September 15, 2013, Vanilla Ice performed at the halftime show of a Houston Texans game.
Houston went on to lose the remaining fourteen games of the season, leading some players to blame Vanilla Ice for the losing streak.[97] In the Western comedy film The Ridiculous Six, released in 2015, Ice portrayed Mark Twain.[98] He also had a non-speaking cameo in another Netflix movie; Sandy Wexler On August 30, 2016, Vanilla Ice was announced as one of the celebrities who will compete on season 23 of Dancing with the Stars.
He was partnered with professional dancer Witney Carson.[99] They were eliminated on October 4, 2016.[100] On January 1, 2017, Vanilla Ice was invited by Insane Clown Posse and Psychopathic Records to take part in the free concert (September 16, 2017), the Juggalo March On Washington (September 17, 2017) as well as feature in the Family Psypher.[101] For the last three years, Vanilla Ice has been one of the main headliners for the worldwide 'I Love the 90s Tour'.
On January 4, 2019, it was announced that Dave Franco was attached to star as Ice in a biopic chronicling the rapper.[102] Vanilla Ice dated Madonna for eight months in 1991-1992.[103] Ice married Laura Giaritta in 1997; they have two daughters, Dusti Rain (born 1998) and KeeLee Breeze (born 2000).[104] Ice describes himself as a "Juggalo", a fan of Psychopathic Records hip hop groups.[105] By 2012, he was a vegetarian for six years.[106] In 2016, Ice's wife filed for divorce, saying that the marriage was "irretrievably broken."[107] His third child with his new wife, was born in 2018.[108] On August 8, 1988, Ice was arrested in South Dallas for illegal drag racing.[109] In 1990, Ice was threatened with copyright infringement for use of samples from "Under Pressure" by Queen and David Bowie.
The matter was settled out of court.[110] On June 3, 1991, he was arrested in Los Angeles on firearm charges after threatening a homeless man, James N.
Gregory, with a pistol.
Gregory had approached Ice's car outside of a supermarket and attempted to sell him a silver chain.[111][112] Ice and his bodyguard were charged with three weapons offenses.[113] Ice pleaded no contest.[114] In January 2001, Ice was arrested by police in Davie, Florida, for assaulting his wife, Laura.
According to the criminal complaint, Ice and his wife argued as they drove on Interstate 595.
Ice admitted to pulling hair from her head to prevent her from jumping out of the truck's window.[115] He pleaded guilty to charges of disorderly conduct four months later and was sentenced to probation and ordered to attend family therapy sessions.[citation needed] Ice's pet wallaroo, Bucky, and pet goat, Pancho, escaped from his wife's grandmother's home in Port St.
Lucie, Florida in November 2004.
After wandering around local streets for over a week, the animals were caught and returned to Ice.
He paid a $220 fine for expired pet tags and an undisclosed fine for the escape of the animals.[116] Ice appeared in West Palm Beach court in September 2007 to be arraigned for driving with an expired license.
In the months leading up to the court hearing, he had been pulled over for doing 74 in a 45-mph zone, violating high-occupancy vehicle lane restrictions and having illegally tinted car windows.[117] On April 10, 2008, Ice was arrested in Palm Beach County on a battery charge for allegedly kicking and hitting his wife.[118] He was released the following day, after she declared that her husband had only pushed her.
In court, the couple's neighbor, Frank Morales, stated that it was merely a verbal argument.[118] Ice was ordered by a Florida court to stay away from his wife following his arrest, and to communicate with his children only if Morales accompanied him.
The judge told Ice that he could only contact his wife via telephone.[118] On April 29, 2008, Ice's lawyers, Bradford Cohen and Joseph LoRusso, were able to get the charges dropped after providing the state attorney with evidence that conflicted with what was originally reported.[119] In February 2015, Ice was arrested and charged with residential burglary and grand theft after he allegedly stole furniture, a pool heater, bicycles and other items from a Florida home that he believed to be vacant.[120] He later accepted a plea deal which would result in the charges being dropped following his completion of 100 hours of community service and payment of restitution to the estate of the homeowner.[121] As of the late 2000s[update], Ice's live performances feature a mix of newer, rock and techno-influenced material and old-school hip hop.[11] Ice performs with a live drummer and DJ,[122] and sometimes sprays his audience with bottled water.[123] Ice's performances often feature an inflatable grim reaper balloon, a dancer in a clown mask, and confetti thrown into the audience.[8] Describing his performances, Ice stated "It's high energy, stage diving, pyrotechnics, girls showing their breasts.
It's crazy party atmosphere."[11] Ice stated that his musical style was influenced by underground music, rather than mainstream music, and that his influences included hip hop and funk artists such as Funkadelic, Rick James, Roger Troutman, Egyptian Lover and Parliament.[11] Ice is a big fan of 50's and 60's reggae and Bob Marley's work and has also stated that he enjoys Rage Against the Machine, Slipknot, and System of a Down.[11] Ice sometimes plays bass, drums and keyboards on studio recordings.[10] Vanilla Ice referred to his mainstream music as "above-ground" rather than underground, as he tried to make danceable beats and removed expletives so that the songs could reach a wider audience.
A lot of his early hits had Ice boasting sexual conquests, in 1991, Ice was quoted "I rap about what I know.
Girls and stuff.
That's what is going through my head."[124] When asked about his darker sound in 2002, Ice replied; "Music is about reflection and I’m just reflecting my life and everything it’s been and there’s no way I’m going to be able to stress what I want and mean over a break beat, you know, it’s too emotional and it’s too intense, so you have to have the intensity of the band, it’s like a symphony, you know, you have to build on the intense parts, and so it just wasn’t going to happen, to come extreme over some hip hop record, so to exorcise my demons I had to have the band."[125] Along with Beastie Boys, 3rd Bass, and House Of Pain, Ice was one of the earliest white rappers to attain major success.[126] Chuck D has credited Ice as a regional breakthrough, stating "He broke through in the mid-South, in a Southern area in Texas, in something that was kind of indigenous to that hip-hop culture down there.
He just doesn’t get credit for it."[127] In 1991, 3rd Bass released a single called "Pop Goes the Weasel", and in the lyrics comparing Ice unfavorably to Elvis Presley.
The song's music video featured Henry Rollins as Ice, who is depicted as being assaulted by 3rd Bass.
Ice responded to "Pop Goes the Weasel" with his 1992 song "The Wrath".[128] Del tha Funkee Homosapien referred to Ice in the lyrics of "Pissin' on Your Steps", which appeared on his 1991 debut album I Wish My Brother George Was Here.
Similar to 'Pop Goes the Weasel', the song negatively makes a connection between Ice and Elvis, while saying Ice alongside MC Hammer are mocking hip hop by being commercial.[129] Vanilla Ice answered back to most of his critics in the song "Hit 'em Hard".[130] Vanilla Ice appears as a video game character in Championship Motocross released in 2001 on PlayStation 2.[131] The hairstylist character in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas is also molded after Vanilla Ice.
Former Ultimate Fighting Championship light heavyweight champion Chuck 'The Iceman' Lidell used Ice's song Too Cold for his entrance to the ring.[132] In 2007, Nike released Vanilla Ice shoes for their Fallen Heroes pack.[133] Rapper G-Child, best known for her appearance on ego trip's The (White) Rapper Show, has credited Ice as being a major influence on her work.[134] After meeting Ice in 2000, G-Child performed freestyle raps at six of Ice's performances, and opened for him four times.[134] The late rapper Ol' Dirty Bastard appeared on stage with Vanilla Ice during the 2004 Gathering of the Juggalos and expressed interest in working on a song together after stating that he was Ice's "greatest fan".[135] In March 2009, Ice participated in a Virgin Mobile advertising campaign titled "Right Music Wrongs", apologizing for his 1990s image.[136] As part of the campaign, Ice was placed on "trial", and was voted innocent by users of the campaign website.[137] He also appeared in a commercial for the South African light beer Castle Lite.[8] In 2010, Vanilla Ice was featured on the debut single of the Irish duo Jedward, a mashup of "Under Pressure" and "Ice Ice Baby".
"Under Pressure (Ice Ice Baby)" was released in the United Kingdom on January 31, 2010 via download and as a physical single on February 15, 2010.[138] In 2010, Serbian musicians Slađa Delibašić and Shwarz released the single and music video Dizel Power.
The music video and song feature various references to Vanilla Ice, including the performers dancing next to a graffiti mural of Ice.
The video has reached two million views on YouTube.[139] After signing with Psychopathic Records, Violent J mentioned that Insane Clown Posse were longtime fans of Ice's work; “We were bumping him way before "Ice Ice Baby" blew up.
We were bumping him when he had his first record out on Ichiban.
Shaggy had the vinyl and we used to bump that shit up in his room.
It felt like two summers before that shit blew up.”[140] "Thanda Thanda Pani" (Cold Cold Water) by Baba Sehgal was inspired heavily by Vanilla Ice's music and style.
Rapper Riff Raff has mentioned in interviews that Vanilla Ice was one of his biggest influence.[141] Eminem has often name-dropped Vanilla Ice in his songs.
Starting during taped freestyles he did with rapper Proof in 1992 where they performed against each other portraying Ice and MC Hammer, respectively.
In his first single "Just Don't Give a Fuck", Eminem mentions Ice alongside Everlast, boasting in a playful manner that he is a better rapper.
In "Role Model", Eminem says he ripped out Vanilla Ice's dreadlocks.
Ice responded to in a magazine interview with Vibe saying that Eminem "raps like a girl".[142] While Vanilla Ice and Eminem neither look at their responses as an actual beef, Eminem did reply to the quote in his song "Marshall Mathers" which also featured a verbal attack on the Insane Clown Posse.
Eminem mentioned Ice again in the song "Purple Pills" in 2001, which caused Vanilla Ice's only response in song.
On his album Bi-Polar, Ice mentions Eminem in a positive light ("Hip Hop Rules") and in a negative light ("Exhale"), however, Ice stated that he has no bad feelings towards Eminem.
In a 2002 interview, Vanilla Ice stated that he thought Eminem's references were flattering, going on to say "I give him credit, I think he’s talented, I think he’s a killer rapper, you know I don’t compare myself to him because he’s another white rapper, I don't compare myself to any other rapper period, I don’t colorize hip hop, it’s stupid, but for people who are doing that are just looking through the eyes of a racial standpoint, and it really shouldn’t be looked at that way, you’re looking at two musicians that are in a broad brand of hip hop, so you don’t need to compare us two.
Following me, any white rapper is going to have to hear 'oh, you think you’re Vanilla Ice?', so I am sure he’s heard that."[143] In April 2009, Ice appeared in the music video for Eminem's song "We Made You".[144] American Music Awards Grammy Awards People's Choice Awards The Factual Entertainment Awards Golden Raspberry Awards
A Hot tub is a large tub or small pool full of water used for hydrotherapy, relaxation or pleasure.
Hot tubs typically have water jets for massage purposes, but lower-end Hot tubs might only have air shooting jets.
Hot tubs are sometimes also known as spas or by the trade name Jacuzzi.
In contrast to a typical bathtub, a Hot tub is designed to be used by more than one person at a time, with many models accommodating four or more people.
Hot tubs are usually located outdoors, although they can be installed indoors.
Also, the water in a Hot tub is not changed with each use, but is kept sanitary using methods similar to those used for swimming pool sanitation.[citation needed] The earliest Hot tubs were calderas in which hot stones were placed to heat the water.[1] Therma in Ikaria has been a very popular place particularly for hydrotherapy ever since the 4th century BC.[2] The remains of wrecked marble bathtubs along with a pre-historic aqueduct that have been unearthed from this area bear ample testimony of the place's popularity in the ancient times.[2] In 737 A.D., Japan's first onsen opened near Izumo, Shimane, and centuries later the first ryokan (inns) were built, offering food, accommodations, and soaking tubs called ofuro.
In ancient Rome there were three types of baths: baths at home (balnea), private baths (balnea privata), and public baths (balnea publica).
The practice of bathing was so engrained that the Roman legions, during their long occupations in foreign lands, built their own baths at mineral and thermal springs in the newly conquered lands.
Examples are found all over Europe.[3] After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 and the rise of Christianity, cleanliness was abandoned since the Church considered that the practice of bathing a prelude to forbidden behaviour.[4] At Cluny custom required monks to take a full bath at Christmas and Easter.[5] Private bath-rooms in castles, such as the one at Leeds, could often accommodate multiple bathers.[6] From the 13th century onwards, baths gradually came into re-use, particularly in southern Europe under the influence of the Moors.
In the 1940s Hot tubs began to appear in the US, inspired by the Japanese ofuro.
Hydrotherapy pumps were introduced by Jacuzzi.
Fiberglass shell Hot tubs appeared in the late 1960s and were soon superseded by cast acrylic shells in the 1970s[7].
The plumbing of the Hot tub consists of: Hot tubs are usually heated using an electric or natural gas heater, though there are also submersible wood fire Hot tub heaters, as well as solar hot water systems.
Hot tubs are also found at natural hot springs; in this case, the water may be dangerously hot and must be combined with cool water for a safe soaking temperature.
Effective insulation greatly improves the energy efficiency of a Hot tub. There are several different styles of Hot tub insulation: some manufacturers fill the entire cabinet with foam, while others insulate the underside of the shell, the inside of the cabinet, or both. Many manufacturers advertise the superiority of their approach to insulation, but few independent side-by-side comparisons are available. The Hot tub pump and Hot tub heater represent most of the power consumption in a Hot tub and vary in use of power depending on their size.[8] Energy efficiency of the tubs has been studied by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PGEC).[9] The industry has responded to the study.[10] After this study, both the California Energy Commission and National Resources Canada have taken an interest in the energy efficiency of portable Hot tubs (late 2006).[citation needed] California's portable electric Hot tub listing include R values of thermal insulation, and standby watts.[11][12] In 2019 an update to the ANSI standard for energy efficiency was approved. For the first time, this new standard increases the minimum energy efficiency level for portable spas and inflatable spas.[13] [14] Hot tub covers have been shown to reduce most of the evaporative losses from the pool when not in use. With this component of heat loss being 70%[citation needed] a cover with even a small R-value is able to achieve as much as a 75% reduction in heating costs when used as opposed to leaving the water surface exposed.[citation needed] There are several different types of spa covers. Some covers are better for insulation and therefore are lighter on internal parts and energy efficiency. Some examples of covers are insulated, aluminum, rolling, or a tonneau.[citation needed] Since some Hot tubs are not drained after each use it is necessary to treat the water to keep it attractive and safe. It must be neither too alkaline nor too acidic, and must be sanitised to stay free of harmful microorganisms. Partly due to their high water temperatures, Hot tubs can pose particular health risks if not regularly maintained: outbreaks of Legionnaires' Disease have been traced to poorly sanitized Hot tubs.[15] Typically chlorine or bromine are used as sanitizers, but salt water chlorination is starting to become more common. Hot tubs should also be periodically shocked, which means oxidizing or breaking down organic material left behind from the sanitizer, as well as non-filterable material such as soap films and perspiration.[citation needed] Sanitation can also be aided by a non-chemical ozonator. The hardness level of the water, measured as the amount of dissolved calcium, is also important. Insufficient hardness can lead to corrosion and increased water foaming.[16] [18] Sitting in water above normal body temperatures can cause drowsiness which may lead to unconsciousness and subsequently result in drowning. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) recommends that water temperatures never exceed 40 degrees Celsius. A temperature of 37 degrees is considered safe for a healthy adult. Soaking in water above 39 degrees Celsius can cause fetal damage during the first three months of pregnancy.[19] It is also recommended to install residual-current devices for protection against electrocution. The greater danger associated with electrical shock in the water is that the person may be rendered immobile and unable to rescue themselves or to call for help and then drown.[20] Hot tubs and spas are equipped with drains that can create powerful suction. Between 1980 and 1996, the CPSC had reports of more than 700 deaths in spas and Hot tubs, about one-third of which were drownings of children under age five. In the same period, 18 incidents were reported to the CPSC involving body part entrapment. To reduce the risk of entrapment, US safety standards require that each spa have two drains for each pump, reducing the amount of suction.[21] From 1999 to 2007 there were 26 reports to the CPSC concerning circulation entrapments Hot tubs and spas, including three deaths.[22] In 2001[23] and in 2012[24] the CPSC issued recalls for spa heaters which overheated and caused fires. The Uniform Swimming Pool, Spa and Hot tub Code is a model code developed by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) to govern the installation and inspection of plumbing systems associated with swimming pools, spas and Hot tubs as a means of promoting the public's health, safety and welfare. Poorly sanitized hot-tubs have been linked to a number of diseases, principally caused by facultative anaerobic bacteria. Such incidents include Hot tub folliculitis and legionellosis. Bathers enjoying a Hot tub in the winter in Keystone, Colorado Wood-fired Hot tub at the Adirondack Canoe Classic, Saranac Lake, NY A Hot tub at the Big White Ski Resort, Canada Fleishhacker PoolFleishhacker Pool or Delia Fleishhacker Memorial Building was a public saltwater swimming pool located in the southwest corner of San Francisco, California, United States, next to the San Francisco Zoo at Sloat Boulevard and the Great Highway. Upon its completion in 1925, it was one of the largest heated outdoor swimming pools in the world; it remained open for more than four decades until its closure in 1971. It was eventually demolished in 2000. The pool was built by philanthropist and civic leader Herbert Fleishhacker in 1924, and opened on April 22, 1925. Measuring 1,000 by 150 ft (300 by 50 m) and holding 6,500,000 US gal (25,000,000 L) of seawater, it accommodated 10,000 bathers and at its opening the largest swimming pool in the United States[1] and one of the largest heated outdoor pools in the world.[2] The pool was so large the lifeguards required rowboats for patrol, and was used by the military for drills and exercises. There were rumors of a shark in the pool.[1] There was also a diving pool measuring 50 ft (15 m) square and 14 ft (4.3 m) deep and a two-tiered diving tower. The water was provided by a series of pumps and piping at high tide, directly from the Pacific Ocean 650 ft (200 m) away, filtered, and heated. The pool's heater could warm 2,800 US gal (11,000 L) of seawater from 60 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit each minute, in theory providing a constant pool water temperature of 72 degrees for AAU swim meets,[3] but in practice tended to vary between 65 and 75 degrees, which many swimmers found chilly.[1] After years of underfunding and poor maintenance, the pool was showing some deterioration when a storm in January 1971 damaged its drainage pipe. Usage of the pool had been low, and the repair costs exceeded the City's budget,[1] so the pool was converted fresh water, resulting in poor water quality; it was closed by the end of 1971.[3] In 1999, the San Francisco Zoological Society was granted ownership of the pool house. The swimming pool itself was filled with rocks and gravel, with the space now serving as a parking lot for the zoo.[4] The poolhouse stood derelict and occupied by wildlife and homeless people for many years until it was destroyed by a fire on December 1, 2012.[1][5][6] The remaining ruins were demolished, and only a fragment consisting of three ornate entrances remains.[7] Energy Conservation Program for Consumer ProductsRadiator (heating)Radiators and convectors are heat exchangers designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of space heating. Denison Olmsted of New Haven, Connecticut, appears to have been the earliest person to use the term 'radiator' to mean a heating appliance in an 1834 patent for a stove with a heat exchanger which then radiated heat. In the patent he wrote that his invention was a peculiar kind of apparatus, which I call a radiator.[1] The heating radiator was invented by Franz San Galli in 1855, a Prussian-born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg.[2][3] In the late 1800s, companies, such as the American Radiator Company, promoted cast iron radiators over previous fabricated steel designs in order to lower costs and expand the market. In practice, the term radiator refers to any of a number of devices in which a fluid circulates through exposed pipes (often with fins or other means of increasing surface area), notwithstanding that such devices tend to transfer heat mainly by convection and might logically be called convectors. The terms convection heater or convector refers to a class of devices in which the source of heat is not directly exposed. As domestic safety and the supply from water heaters keeps temperatures relatively low, radiation is inefficient in comparison to convection. Convection heaters also work differently from electric radiators in that they disperse heat differently.[4] A hot-water radiator consists of a sealed hollow metal container filled with hot water by gravity feed, a pressure pump, or convection. As it gives out heat, the hot water cools and sinks to the bottom of the radiator and is forced out of a pipe at the other end. Anti-hammer devices are often installed to prevent or minimize knocking in hot water radiator pipes. Traditional cast iron radiators are no longer common in new construction, replaced mostly with forced hot water baseboard style radiators. They consist of copper pipes which have aluminium fins to increase their surface area. These conduction boiler systems use conduction to transfer heat from the water into the metal radiators or convectors. The radiators are designed to heat the air in the room using convection to transfer heat from the radiators to the surrounding air. They do this by drawing cool air in at the bottom, warming the air as it passes over the radiator fins, and discharging the heated air at the top. This sets up convective loops of air movement within a room. If the register is blocked either from above or below, this air movement is prevented, and the heater will not work. Baseboard heating systems are sometimes fitted with moveable covers to allow the resident to fine-tune heating by room, much like air registers in a central air system. Steam has the advantage of flowing through the pipes under its own pressure without the need for pumping. For this reason, it was adopted earlier, before electric motors and pumps became available. Steam is also far easier to distribute than hot water throughout large, tall buildings like skyscrapers. However, the higher temperatures at which steam systems operate make them inherently less efficient, as unwanted heat loss is inevitably greater.[citation needed] Steam pipes and radiators are prone to producing banging sounds called steam hammer. The bang is created when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal section of the steam piping. Subsequently, steam picks up the water, forms a "slug" and hurls it at high velocity into a pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This condition is usually caused by a poor condensate drainage strategy and is often caused by buildings settling and the resultant pooling of condensate in pipes and radiators that no longer tilt slightly back towards the boiler.[citation needed] A fan-assisted radiator contains a heat exchanger fed by hot water from the heating system. A thermostatic switch energises an electric fan which blows air over the heat exchanger to circulate it in a room. Its advantages are small relative size and even distribution of heat. Disadvantages are fan noise and the need for both a source of heat and a separate electrical supply. Also known as "radiant heat", underfloor heating uses a network of pipes, tubing or heating cables, buried in or attached beneath a floor to allow heat to rise into the room. Best results are achieved with conductive flooring materials such as tile. The large surface area of such room-sized radiators allows them to be kept just a few degrees above desired room temperature, minimizing convection. Underfloor heating is more expensive in new construction than less efficient systems. It also is generally difficult to retrofit into existing buildings. The Roman hypocaust employed a similar principle of operation. Skirting-board radiators are a form of heating which involves placing radiators inside a skirting board. Hot water is piped though the system, usually taken directly from the central heating system.[5] Energy factorJohn F. Kennedy High School (Taylor, Michigan)John F. Kennedy High School was a high school located in Taylor, Michigan, in the United States, in Metro Detroit. The school, which had two stories,[3] served portions of Taylor and Brownstown Township.[4] It had a capacity smaller than that of Truman High School.[3] The school closed permanently after the 2018 school year, with its students and staff merged with Harry S. Truman High School to form a new school, called Taylor High School.[5] The district decided to discontinue use of Kennedy's building partly because of the facility's smaller capacity, partly it was not compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and that it had no elevator which could be used for disabled students, and partly because the boiler system and pool heater were not working.[3] On April 10, 2017, the Taylor School District Board voted 4-3 to close Kennedy High School due to declining enrollment and cost savings.[6] Nemo 33Coordinates: 50°47′46″N 4°18′59″E / 50.796211°N 4.316468°E / 50.796211; 4.316468 Nemo 33 is an indoor non-chlorinated fresh water facility in Brussels, Belgium. It held the record as the deepest indoor swimming pool in the world between its opening on 1 May 2004, and the completion of Y-40 in Montegrotto Terme, Padua, Italy on 5 June 2014.[1][2][3] The pool's maximum depth is 34.5 metres (113 ft). It contains 2,500,000 litres (550,000 imp gal; 660,000 US gal) of non-chlorinated, highly filtered spring water, maintained at 30 °C (86 °F) by a solar heater, and holds several simulated underwater caves at the 10 metres (33 ft) depth level. Due to the warm temperature in the pool, divers can dive for extended periods without a dry suit. The complex was designed by Belgian diving expert John Beernaerts as a multipurpose diving instruction, recreational, and film production facility in 2004.[1] Popular Mechanics rates Nemo 33 as one of the top 18 strangest pools in the world.[4] The facility allows tourists, amateur divers, and professional divers. It requires that divers be at least 12 years of age and in good health. All divers must be either certified or supervised by a trainer. All divers must have a certified diver as a dive buddy.[1] The facility contains a restaurant, bookshop, swimwear store, souvenir store, and rooms for other water activities. There are numerous underwater windows that allow outside visitors to look into the pools at various depths. It also offers tours around the city of Brussels.[1] ShedA Shed is typically a simple, single-story roofed structure in a back garden or on an allotment that is used for storage, hobbies, or as a workshop. Sheds vary considerably in their size and complexity of construction, from simple open-sided ones designed to cover bicycles or garden items to large wood-framed structures with shingled roofs, windows, and electrical outlets. Sheds used on farms or in industry can be large structures. The main types of Shed construction are metal sheathing over a metal frame, plastic sheathing and frame, all-wood construction (the roof may be asphalt shingled or sheathed in tin), and vinyl-sided Sheds built over a wooden frame. Small Sheds may include a wooden or plastic floor, while more permanent ones may be built on a concrete pad or foundation. Sheds may be lockable to deter theft or entry by children, domestic animals, wildlife, etc. A culture of Shed enthusiasts exists in several countries for people who enjoy building Sheds and spending time in them for relaxation. In Australia and New Zealand there are magazines called The Shed, an association for Shed hobbyists (the Australian Men's Shed Association), and a book entitled Men and Sheds. Depending on the region and type of use, a Shed may also be called a shack, outhouse, or "outbuilding". Sheds may be classified as "accessory buildings" in municipal bylaws which may regulate their size, appearance, and distance from the principal building and boundary lines. The simplest and least-expensive Sheds are available in kit form. These kits are designed for regular people to be able to assemble themselves using commonly available tools (e.g., screwdriver). Both Shed kits and DIY (do-it-yourself) plans are available for wooden and plastic Sheds. Sheds are used to store home and garden tools and equipment such as lawn tractors, and gardening supplies. In addition, Sheds can be used to store items that are not suitable for indoor storage, such as petrol (gasoline), pesticides, or herbicides. For homes with small gardens or modest storage needs, there are several types of very small Sheds. The Sheds not only use less ground area but also have a low profile less likely to obstruct the view or clash with the landscaping. These small Sheds include corner Sheds, which fit into a corner (3 ft tall × 3 wide × 2 deep, or about 1 m tall × 1 m wide × 50 cm deep), vertical Sheds (5 ft × 3 ft × 4 ft deep, or 1.5 m × 1 m × 1 m), horizontal Sheds (3 ft × 5 ft × 4 ft or 1 m × 1.5 m × 1 m), and tool Sheds. When a Shed is used for tool storage, shelves and hooks are often used to maximize the storage space. Gambrel-style roofed Sheds (sometimes called baby barns), which resemble a Dutch-style barn, have a high sloping roofline which increases storage space in the "loft" area. Some Gambrel-styles have no loft and offer the advantage of reduced overall height. Another style of small Shed is the saltbox-style Shed. Many Sheds have either a pent or apex roof shape. A pent Shed features a single roof section which is angled downwards to let rainwater run off, with more headroom at the front than the back. This is a simple, practical design that will fit particularly well next to a wall or fence. It is also usually lower than the typical apex Shed, so could be a better choice if there are any height restrictions. A pent Shed may be free-standing or attached to a wall (when it is known, unsurprisingly, as a wall Shed). An apex Shed has a pointed roof in an inverted V shape similar to the roof line of many houses. Two roof sections meet at a ridge in the middle, providing more headroom in the centre than at the sides. This type is generally regarded as a more attractive and traditional design, and may be preferable if the Shed is going to be visible from the house. [4] A twist on the standard apex shape is the reverse apex Shed. In this design, the door is set in a side wall instead of the front. The main advantage of the reverse apex design is that the door opens into the widest part of the Shed instead of the narrowest, so it's easier to reach into all areas to retrieve or store equipment. [5] Larger, more-expensive Sheds are typically constructed of wood and include features typically found in house construction, such as windows, a shingled roof, and electrical outlets. Larger Sheds provide more space for engaging in hobbies such as gardening, small engine repair, or tinkering. Some Sheds have small porches or include furniture, which allows them to be used for relaxation purposes. In some cases, teleworkers and homeworkers in general who live in mild climates use small to medium-sized wooden garden Sheds as outdoor offices. There is a growing industry in providing "off the peg" garden offices to cater for this demand, particularly in the UK but also in the US. Shed owners can customize wooden Sheds to match the features (e.g., siding, trim, etc.) of the main house. A number of decorative options can be added to Sheds, such as dormers, shutters, flowerboxes, finials, and weathervanes. As well, practical options can be added such as benches, ramps, ventilation systems (e.g., in cases where a swimming pool heater is installed in a Shed), and electric lighting. Sheds designed for gardening, called "potting Sheds", often feature windows or skylights for illumination, ventilation grilles, and a potter's bench for mixing soil and re-potting plants. The main types of Shed construction are metal sheathing over a metal frame, plastic sheathing and frame, all-wood construction (wood frame, wood siding and wood roof), and vinyl-sided Sheds built over a wooden frame. Each type has various advantages and disadvantages that a homeowner has to consider. For example, while metal Sheds are fire and termite-resistant, they can rust over time, or be severely damaged by high winds or heavy snow loads. Wood Sheds are easier to modify or customize than plastic or metal, because carpentry tools and basic carpentry skills are more readily available. Vinyl-sided, wood-framed Sheds blend the strength of a wood frame with the maintenance-free aspect of vinyl siding (it does not need to be painted or varniShed). The International Building Code (IBC) defines a Shed as a building or structure of an accessory character; it classifies them under utility and miscellaneous group U (Chapter 3 Section 312). Metal Sheds made from thin sheet metal sheathing (galvanized steel, aluminium, or corrugated iron) attached to a metal frame. Metal Sheds are a good choice when long-term strength and resistance to fire, rot, or termites is desired. However, metal Sheds may rust over time, particularly if they are constructed from steel that is not galvanized. Be aware that concrete is highly corrosive so care needs to be taken when assembling your Shed to avoid contact with the outside panels.[6] As well, some types of metal Sheds that have thin walls are easily dented, which may makes some types of thin metal Sheds a poor choice for vandal-prone areas or for high-traffic activities such as small businesses. In cold climates, metal Sheds with thin walls need to have snow and ice cleared from the roof, because the thin metal may be damaged by a heavy accumulation. Since thin metal Sheds weigh much less than wood or PVC plastic Sheds, thin metal Sheds are more at risk of being damaged by heavy winds. To prevent wind damage, thin metal Sheds should be attached to a concrete foundation with screws.[7] In countries where the climate is generally mild, such as Australia, very large metal Sheds are used for many types of industry. Corrugated metal Sheds may be better able to withstand wind and snow loads, as the corrugated shape makes the metal stronger than flat tin. Plastic Shed kits utilizing heavy molded plastics such as PVC and polyethylene may be less expensive than sheet-metal Sheds. PVC resins and high-impact, UV light-resistant polyethylene make plastic outdoor Sheds stronger, lighter, more durable, and more resistant to denting and chipping than wood, and tend to be more stable. Plastic Shed kits sided with vinyl are typically among the least-expensive types of Shed construction. Higher-quality Sheds use UV-resistant plastic and powder-coated metal frames. Many plastic Sheds are modular to allow for easy extensions, peg-boards, shelving, attic-storage, windows, skylights, and other accessories to be added later, if these additions are purchased from the manufacturer. Plastic Sheds are not susceptible to termite or wood-boring insect damage, and they require little maintenance. Being rot-proof they do not need to have preservative applied. This makes them preferable in climates where the weather can be changeable, such as the United Kingdom.[8] Unlike wooden or metal Sheds, which often require a permit to build, in many areas, plastic Sheds do not. However, this is something property owners will need to verify. A call to your council/town's planning or building code office can provide information on permits.[9] Wooden Sheds have a natural look that can blend in well with garden environments. Despite the strength of wood, over time, untreated and neglected wood can rot, split, warp or become susceptible to mold and mildew, so wood Sheds should be treated for protection with stain and varnish. Wood Sheds need regular maintenance. This includes keeping plant matter and debris from piling up beside the walls and on the roof, and occasional rot-proofing with preservative. Sheds are sometimes also re-stained or varniShed at times for aesthetic and wood protection reasons. Fire and, in some regions, termite attack are also potential problems. Stains and preservatives can be applied to wood Sheds to prevent damage to the wood caused by exposure to rain, damp ground, UV light, harsh climatic conditions, fungal attack and wood-boring insects. If a coloured preservative oil or stain is used, a wooden Shed can either be made to stand out as a feature within a garden, or to blend in with its surroundings. Red cedar coloured stain is popular. Legislation such as the European Biocidal Products Regulation has reduced the number of effective active ingredients available for wood preservative formulations. For this reason, in recent years, there has been a greater emphasis on preserving wood by keeping it dry, for example through the application of water-repellent "wood protection creams." Some types of wood, such as cedar, are more naturally resistant to water damage. When looking for a wooden Shed, it is important to understand the difference between the two types of preservative used in their manufacture. The timber will have been treated in one of two ways: dip treatment or pressure treatment. Dip-treated Sheds are made from components that are lowered into a tank of preservative before the panels are assembled. This is a quick and simple process which keeps costs down and encourages manufacturers to produce a wide variety, making dip-treated Sheds the most popular and affordable type on the market. They are easily recognisable by their golden brown colour, which is due to a dye added to the preservative. Most manufacturers offer a 10-year anti-rot guarantee on dip-treated Sheds, but they have to be re-coated every year or two. [1] Pressure-treated Sheds are made from timber planks which have had the moisture sucked out of them under vacuum conditions in a special cylinder. A powerful preservative is then forced into the wood at high pressure until it is absorbed deep into the grain, becoming an integral part of the timber. This provides excellent protection against the weather - so much so that manufacturers generally give a 15-year anti-rot guarantee. These Sheds are usually distinguiShed by a pale green tinge which will fade eventually to a silvery grey. Although pressure-treated Sheds tend to be more expensive than dip-treated ones, their big advantage is that they won't need any further preservative treatment during the guarantee period, saving owners time and money. [2] One advantage of using wood Sheds over metal versions is that it is easier to modify them by adding windows, doors, shelving, or exterior trim (etc.) because wood can be cut and drilled using commonly available tools, whereas a plastic or metal Shed requires specialized tools. Some homeowners may prefer wood Sheds because wood is a renewable resource. Vinyl-sided Sheds are typically built with standard wood framing construction and oriented strand board (OSB) on the walls covered with standard vinyl siding. The vinyl siding protects the OSB wood and the frame from moisture from rain and snow. Vinyl-sided Sheds never need to be painted, and are maintenance-free. They are stronger than plastic or metal Sheds, and are usually built to conform with the local building codes. They offer good value for money because they hold up in all weather, including winters with heavy snowfall, as they use a strong wooden frame and the OSB panels have stronger structural support than thin metal or PVC siding or roofs. Metal, plastic and resin Sheds are cheaper, but they cannot handle the weight of snow in winter (roofs may cave in). Vinyl Sheds also offer more colour options. In the early and middle years of the 20th century, many garden Sheds and domestic garages were made of asbestos-cement sheets supported on a very light angle-iron frame. Concerns about safety led to the practice being discontinued, but they were cheap and long-lasting, and many can still be seen in British gardens. Advice on continued use or disposal is available.[10] Since 2013 garden Sheds have been available in the UK made from TPR - a sustainable alternative to concrete.[11] They are typically coated in a marine gelcoat and are far stronger and more durable than traditional Sheds. A Shed made from TPR became the first Secured by Design-approved Shed in 2014.[12] In Australia and New Zealand the term Shed can be used to refer to any building that is not a residence and which may be open at the ends or sides, or both. Australia's passion for Sheds is documented in Mark Thomson's Blokes and Sheds (1998).[13] Jim Hopkins' similarly titled Blokes & Sheds (1998), with photographer Julie Riley Hopkins, profiles amateur inventors from across New Zealand.[14] Hopkins and Riley followed up that book with Inventions from the Shed (1999)[15] and a 5-part film documentary series with the same name.[16] Gordon Thorburn also examined the Shed proclivity in his book Men and Sheds (2002),[17] as did Gareth Jones in Shed Men (2004).[18] Recently, "Men's Sheds" have become common in Australia.[19] In New Zealand, the bi-monthly magazine The Shed appeals to the culture of "blokes" who do woodwork or metalwork DIY projects in their Sheds. The Australian Men's Shed Association is one organisation that has been set up involving Sheds. Another magazine called The Shed, a bimonthly PDF magazine produced in the UK, but with a global audience, targets people who work (usually in creative industries) in garden offices, Sheds and other Shed-like atmospheres.[citation needed] In the UK, people have long enjoyed working in their potting Sheds; the slang term "Sheddie", to refer to a person enamoured of Shed-building, testifies to the place of Sheds in UK popular culture. A Usenet Newsgroup "uk.rec.Sheds" has long championed this subculture: their lengthy FAQ[20] is a masterly summary of the idea. Shedworking: A lifestyle guide for Shedworkers is publiShed at Blogger. Author Gordon Thorburn examined the Shed proclivity in his book Men and Sheds, which argues that a "place of retreat" is a "male necessity" which provides men with solace, especially during their retirement.[17] In contrast, in the novel Cold Comfort Farm by Stella Gibbons, Aunt Ada Doom saw "something nasty in the woodShed" and retreated to her bed for half a century. To woodShed, or 'Shed, in jazz jargon, is "to shut oneself up, away from the world, and practice long and hard, as in 'going to the woodShed'."[21] A Shed built onto the chassis of an old car, and called Fastest Shed, is legally roadworthy in the UK, and holds the world speed record for Sheds.[22] The word is recorded in English since 1481, as shadde, possibly a variant of shade. The word shade comes from the Old English word "sceadu", which means "shade, shadow, darkness". The term's P.Gmc. cognate, "skadwo" also means "shady place, protection from glare or heat".[23] The Old English word is spelled in different ways, such as "shadde", "shad" or "Shedde", all of which come from an "Old Teutonic/Anglo-Saxon root word for separation or division". The first attested usage of the word, in 1481, was in the sentence, "A yearde in whiche was a shadde where in were six grete dogges". The Anglo Saxon word "shud", which means "cover" may also have been part of the development of the word. In 1440, a "shud" was defined as a "... schudde, hovel, swyne kote or howse of sympyl hyllynge [covering] to kepe yn beestys".[citation needed] A. O. SmithA. O. Smith Corporation is an American manufacturer of both residential and commercial water heaters and boilers and the largest manufacturer and marketer of water heaters in North America.[1] It also supplies water treatment products in the Asian market.[1][4] The company has 24 locations worldwide, including five manufacturing facilities in North America, as well as plants in Bengaluru in India, Nanjing in China and Veldhoven in The Netherlands.[5] In the past, A. O. Smith has had numerous other product lines. Among them, it was the largest bomb maker in the United States by the end of World War I. Smith ranked 74th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.[6] The A.O. Smith Corporation was founded in 1874 by Charles Jeremiah Smith as C. J. Smith and Sons, a baby carriage and bicycle parts manufacturer. They began forming steel tubing from sheet metal to make bicycle frames.[7] By 1895, the company was the largest bicycle parts manufacturer. In 1899, Arthur Oliver Smith, a son of the founder, developed the world’s first pressed steel vehicle frame and they later began making frames for the Peerless Automobile Company, Cadillac, and Ford Motor Company.[8] In 1904, the company incorporated in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as A. O. Smith Company. In 1913, Lloyd Raymond Smith took over, and in 1914, the company introduced the Smith Motor Wheel, a gasoline-powered device for bicycles and in 1915, they began manufacturing the Smith Flyer, which they later sold to Briggs & Stratton Company of Milwaukee. A year later in 1916, A.O. Smith was incorporated in New York, and in 1917, they began manufacturing bomb casings for World War I. In the 1920s, company engineers developed the coated welding rod which they used in manufacturing until 1965, as well as the world’s first fully automated automobile frame factory, with the capability of making a frame every eight seconds, until 1958, the first arc-welded, high-pressure vessel used to refine oil, which the company produced until 1963, and oil supply line pipes, until 1972. During the Great Depression, the company was said to have excluded Blacks from applying for employment in Milwaukee because "the company 'never did and didn't intend to employ Negroes.'"[9] In 1933, the company used the process of fusing glass to steel to make a large single-piece glass-lined brewery tank. Over the next 32 years, they made more than 11,000 glass-lined tanks. In 1936, the company patented the glass-lined water heater. Three years later, they began mass-producing residential water heaters, but shifted all production to war-time use during World War II. In 1940, the company acquired Sawyer Electric of Los Angeles, California, a manufacturer of electric motors. In 1942, it once again began to produce bomb casings, as well as aircraft propellers, undercarriages, torpedoes, and air flasks. By 1945, the company had built 4.5 million bombs, 16,750 sets of landing gear, and 46,700 propeller blades. They also built nose frames for the B-25 bomber, water heaters, jeep frames, and components for the atomic bomb project. In 1946, they built a 400,000 square foot residential water heater plant in Kankakee, Illinois. In 1948, they entered the commercial water heater market after acquiring The Burkay Company of Toledo, Ohio. In 1949, the company began producing Harvestore, a glass-fused-to-steel silo, targeted at dairy and livestock operations. In the 1950s, A. O. Smith acquired Whirl-A-Way Motors of Dayton, Ohio, and consolidated its electric motor manufacturing operations there. The motor division later introduced the hermetic motor, a critical component of air conditioning and refrigeration compressors. Its water heater division introduced the first glass-lined commercial water heater, the A. O. Smith Burkay B-65, and later the company established a glass fiber division to replace steel in many applications. It also expanded into supplying oil field pipe and pipe for service stations, eventually becoming Smith Fiberglass Products in 1986. In the early 1960s, the company opened a commercial water heater and boiler plant in Stratford, Ontario, Canada. In 1965, the Motor division invented the enclosed canopy, two-compartment motor, a design that improved the reliability in pool pump motors by separating the switching components from the motor windings. In 1967, fourth generation Smith family member, Lloyd B. Smith, was elected chairman and chief executive officer of the company. By 1969, the company had produced its 10 millionth residential water heater, and by 1972, the company had expanded to Europe. In 1974, the Conservationist line of residential water heaters was introduced. In 1976, the Motor division opened a plant in Bray, Ireland, to supply hermetic motors. In 1978, A.O. Smith began manufacturing storage tanks, beginning with Aquastore, a glass-fused-to-steel tank. By the early 1980s, the Automotive Products unit had manufactured over 100 million passenger car frames, and 50 million truck frames, in Milwaukee, and soon after the company opened its first electric motor assembly operations in Ciudad Juárez and Ciudad Acuña, Mexico. In 1990, it developed the first hermetic motor insulation system compatible with R-134a non-ozone-depleting refrigerant. In 1995, they acquired Peabody TecTank of Parsons, Kansas, allowing A.O. Smith to enter the bulk dry storage market.[10] That same year the company expanded into Asia by entering two joint-venture agreements: Smith Fiberglass Products and Harbin Composites Corporation to make fiberglass pipes for the China's petroleum industry, and Water Products Company and Yuhan Water Heater to make residential water heaters. In 1996, the Water Products division introduced the Cyclone XHE commercial water heater. In 1997, after 90 years in the automotive industry, A.O. Smith sold its Automotive Products Company to Tower International. In 1997, they acquired UPPCO, Inc., making A.O Smith the world’s leading manufacturer of C-frame subfractional horsepower motors. In 1998, they acquired General Electric’s domestic compressor motor business, as well as the electric motor division of Magnetek. By the end of the decade, Water Products Company had bought out its joint venture partner in Asia, and had opened a plant in Nanjing, China. In the 2000s, A. O. Smith made a number of acquisitions, by acquiring State Industries, Inc., and its subsidiary APCOM Inc., Shenzhen Speeda Industrial Co. Ltd., and Athens Products, a supplier of hermetic motors for scroll compressor applications, as well as The Changheng Group of Changzhou, China, a manufacturer of fractional horsepower motors for HVAC applications, Taicang Special Motor Company, Ltd., of Suzhou, China, Yueyang Zhongmin Special Electrical Machinery Co. Ltd., Lochinvar Corporation, a manufacturer of high efficiency condensing boilers for hot water and hydronic heating applications, and in 2006, GSW Inc. a water heaters manufacturer for the Canadian market, and The American Water Heater Company, the exclusive supplier of water heaters to Lowe's, carrying the Whirlpool brand. In 2009, the company entered the water purification industry with a new venture, A. O. Smith (Shanghai) Water Treatment Products Co. Ltd. In 2010, A. O. Smith opened a 76,000 square foot residential water heater manufacturing plant in Bangalore, India, which later expanded to 297000 sq ft operation with expansion to manufacture of water purification products. Takagi Industrial Company's North American operations were acquired in 2010.. In 2011, A.O. Smith sold its electric motor business to Regal-Beloit. On August 8, 2016, A.O.Smith, acquired Austin-based Water filtration Company Aquasana (previously known as Sun Water Systems) from L' Catterton for $87 Million.[11] In 2016, A.O Smith was successfully sued by a Chicago area family because the company has refused to include a safety feature in their water heaters to prevent scalding deaths.[12] Immediately after receiving the verdict, A.O. Smith appealed the decision in the Supreme Court and in December 2018 successfully got the verdict reversed.[13] A.O. Smith operates under the following brand names around the world: A.O. Smith (United States, Canada, China, Europe, Turkey, India and Vietnam), GSW (Canada), John Wood (Canada), State Water Heaters, American Water Heaters, Reliance Water Heaters, Lochinvar, Takagi and U.S. Craftmaster Water Heaters. A. O. Smith Water Products Company is headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The Ashland City, TN location is home of the world’s largest water heater factory.[5] A.O. Smith Corporation manufactures the following types of water heaters for residential uses: gas and propane, hybrid, electric, tankless, and solar. The company manufactures following types of water heaters for commercial uses: oil-fired, gas and electric, as well as boilers, storage tanks, and skid systems. They also provide the following accessories: pump tanks, and expansion tanks.[14] The A. O. Smith Foundation is a private, nonprofit organization, founded in 1955, that has contributed nearly $35 million to qualifying charitable, educational, scientific, literary, and civic organizations located primarily in communities where A. O. Smith Corporation has facilities. The support for the Foundation comes from the profits of A. O. Smith Corporation. 12 Feet Deep12 Feet Deep (originally titled The Deep End)[2] is a 2017 American psychological horror-thriller film written and directed by Matt Eskandari and starring Alexandra Park, Nora-Jane Noone, Tobin Bell and Diane Farr.[3] It was distributed by Mar Vista Entertainment.[4][5] The film was released on June 20, 2017.[6] Bree (Nora-Jane Noone) decides to go for a swim at the Ketea Aquatic Center. The pool manager, McGradey (played by Tobin Bell), later hangs signs around the pool mentioning that the pool is closing up for the holiday. Bree is later joined by her sister, Jonna (Alexandra Park) in the pool and connect over a competition in college. Meanwhile, the janitor of the aquatic center, Clara (Diane Farr) is caught by McGradey attempting to steal from the lost and found. She is later laid off and is told to clean up before leaving. McGradey then eagerly tells all swimmers to leave as they prepare to close. Bree and Jonna reluctantly do so. While packing up, Bree realizes that her engagement ring is missing, after attempting to show Jonna. Jonna sees the ring stuck in the metal grate at the bottom of the pool and both dive in to retrieve it. The manager thinks everyone has left the pool and decides to close up, failing to notice the women in the deep end of the pool. He engages the pool cover and leaves for the day with the two women trapped inside the pool. The women are terrified and unsuccessfully attempt to escape. Shortly afterward, Jonna reveals that she is secretly jealous of Bree's successful lifestyle and recent engagement and that she pulled the ring from Bree's bag and threw it in the pool. Bree is initially angry with her sister but her anger is short-lived. Bree also talks about her past with her abusive alcoholic and drug addicted father. She also opens up about the fire which led to his death. Bree reveals that she is diabetic and requires a shot, or there is a possibility that she might slip into a diabetic coma. The janitor, preparing to leave, is surprised to see the two women trapped underneath the pool cover. Leading the women to believe she is going to help them, she picks up Bree's bag, taking her cash, smartphone and credit card. The janitor then proceeds to blackmail her for the password to her phone and her credit card pin number. She later turns the water heater off. The girls have no choice but to wait out the night. Jonna talks about the deep mental damage from her abusive father with Bree saying, "Just keep reminding yourself that he's dead." The janitor comes back in the morning teasing the sisters again. Jonna, angry at her, leads the janitor to place her ear onto the small hole in the pool cover, subsequently stabbing her in the ear with a sharp shard of tile. The janitor then turns on the automatic pool cleaning system, causing the girls to begin suffocating in chlorine. After a few minutes, she turns this off, realising the danger in her action. When the janitor leaves again, Jonna apologises to Bree for her jealousy and keeps blaming herself for the situation they're in. Bree comforts her and forgives her for her wrongdoings. Bree reveals that during the accident which killed their father, she actually prevented her dad from escaping, saying "I killed that monster". The janitor comes back, realising the error of her ways. She decides to open up the pool cover to let Bree and Jonna out but the pass code she was given by the manager no longer works, leaving the women to remain trapped. She tells the sisters they're on their own and leaves. Bree soon grows very weak and cold, passing in and out of consciousness. After initially refusing Bree's offer to try, Jonna spends her last bits of energy trying to rip off the metal grill on the bottom of the pool, something her sister failed to do. After succeeding, Jonna smashes the fiberglass of the pool cover, allowing them to escape. She then pulled Bree, unconscious, out of the pool and gives her the insulin shot, unsure whether she will survive. The janitor appears in front of them with a gun. She threatens to kill Bree and Jonna after thinking about what might happen if they didn't die in the pool, not wanting to go to prison again. The janitor instead feels sympathetic for the sisters and puts the gun down and gives them their belongings back. Jonna, after calling the police, tells her to leave. Paramedics arrive at the aquatic center and tend to Bree. Jonna gives her her engagement ring back, which the janitor blackmailed Bree for with the intention of pawning it. Bree asked how she got it back to which Jonna replies, "I killed the monster", referring back to what Bree said about killing their father. 12 Feet Deep received generally positive reviews from critics, JoBlo.com called it a "well crafted-entertaining thriller," and gave it 8/10 stars.[7] That Moment In gave it 3.5 out of 5 stars and said it was "well-directed and engrossing... less a shocker than an intense human drama."[8] Vacuum tubeA Vacuum tube, an electron tube,[1][2][3], valve (British usage) or tube (North America),[4] is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied. The type known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve uses the phenomenon of thermionic emission of electrons from a hot cathode and is used for a number of fundamental electronic functions such as signal amplification and current rectification. Non-thermionic types, such as a vacuum phototube however, achieve electron emission through the photoelectric effect, and are used for such purposes as the detection of light intensities. In both types, the electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric field in the tube. The simplest Vacuum tube, the diode, invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device—from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grids.[5] These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the twentieth century. They were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, sound recording and reproduction, long-distance telephone networks, and analog and early digital computers. Although some applications had used earlier technologies such as the spark gap transmitter for radio or mechanical computers for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic Vacuum tube that made these technologies widespread and practical, and created the discipline of electronics.[6] In the 1940s, the invention of semiconductor devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, reliable, durable, safer, and more economical than thermionic tubes. Beginning in the mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were being replaced by the transistor. However, the cathode-ray tube (CRT) remained the basis for television monitors and oscilloscopes until the early 21st century. Thermionic tubes are still used in some applications, such as the magnetron used in microwave ovens, certain high-frequency amplifiers, and amplifiers that audio enthusiasts prefer for their "warmer" tube sound. Not all electronic circuit valves/electron tubes are Vacuum tubes. Gas-filled tubes are similar devices, but containing a gas, typically at low pressure, which exploit phenomena related to electric discharge in gases, usually without a heater. One classification of thermionic Vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes. A device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are triodes used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have multiple additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. Other classifications are: Tubes have different functions, such as cathode ray tubes which create a beam of electrons for display purposes (such as the television picture tube) in addition to more specialized functions such as electron microscopy and electron beam lithography. X-ray tubes are also Vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission. Since these sorts of "Vacuum tubes" have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A Vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight envelope. Most tubes have glass envelopes with a glass-to-metal seal based on kovar sealable borosilicate glasses, though ceramic and metal envelopes (atop insulating bases) have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal. Most Vacuum tubes have a limited lifetime, due to the filament or heater burning out or other failure modes, so they are made as replaceable units; the electrode leads connect to pins on the tube's base which plug into a tube socket. Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the base terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, particularly for the high impedance grid input.[7]:580[8] The bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. Other reasons for using a top cap include improving stability by reducing grid-to-anode capacitance,[9] improved high-frequency performance, keeping a very high plate voltage away from lower voltages, and accommodating one more electrode than allowed by the base. There was even an occasional design that had two top cap connections. The earliest Vacuum tubes evolved from incandescent light bulbs, containing a filament sealed in an evacuated glass envelope. When hot, the filament releases electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission, originally known as the Edison effect. A second electrode, the anode or plate, will attract those electrons if it is at a more positive voltage. The result is a net flow of electrons from the filament to plate. However, electrons cannot flow in the reverse direction because the plate is not heated and does not emit electrons. The filament (cathode) has a dual function: it emits electrons when heated; and, together with the plate, it creates an electric field due to the potential difference between them. Such a tube with only two electrodes is termed a diode, and is used for rectification. Since current can only pass in one direction, such a diode (or rectifier) will convert alternating current (AC) to pulsating DC. Diodes can therefore be used in a DC power supply, as a demodulator of amplitude modulated (AM) radio signals and for similar functions. Early tubes used the filament as the cathode; this is called a "directly heated" tube. Most modern tubes are "indirectly heated" by a "heater" element inside a metal tube that is the cathode. The heater is electrically isolated from the surrounding cathode and simply serves to heat the cathode sufficiently for thermionic emission of electrons. The electrical isolation allows all the tubes' heaters to be supplied from a common circuit (which can be AC without inducing hum) while allowing the cathodes in different tubes to operate at different voltages. H. J. Round invented the indirectly heated tube around 1913.[10] The filaments require constant and often considerable power, even when amplifying signals at the microwatt level. Power is also dissipated when the electrons from the cathode slam into the anode (plate) and heat it; this can occur even in an idle amplifier due to quiescent currents necessary to ensure linearity and low distortion. In a power amplifier, this heating can be considerable and can destroy the tube if driven beyond its safe limits. Since the tube contains a vacuum, the anodes in most small and medium power tubes are cooled by radiation through the glass envelope. In some special high power applications, the anode forms part of the vacuum envelope to conduct heat to an external heat sink, usually cooled by a blower, or water-jacket. Klystrons and magnetrons often operate their anodes (called collectors in klystrons) at ground potential to facilitate cooling, particularly with water, without high-voltage insulation. These tubes instead operate with high negative voltages on the filament and cathode. Except for diodes, additional electrodes are positioned between the cathode and the plate (anode). These electrodes are referred to as grids as they are not solid electrodes but sparse elements through which electrons can pass on their way to the plate. The Vacuum tube is then known as a triode, tetrode, pentode, etc., depending on the number of grids. A triode has three electrodes: the anode, cathode, and one grid, and so on. The first grid, known as the control grid, (and sometimes other grids) transforms the diode into a voltage-controlled device: the voltage applied to the control grid affects the current between the cathode and the plate. When held negative with respect to the cathode, the control grid creates an electric field that repels electrons emitted by the cathode, thus reducing or even stopping the current between cathode and anode. As long as the control grid is negative relative to the cathode, essentially no current flows into it, yet a change of several volts on the control grid is sufficient to make a large difference in the plate current, possibly changing the output by hundreds of volts (depending on the circuit). The solid-state device which operates most like the pentode tube is the junction field-effect transistor (JFET), although Vacuum tubes typically operate at over a hundred volts, unlike most semiconductors in most applications. The 19th century saw increasing research with evacuated tubes, such as the Geissler and Crookes tubes. The many scientists and inventors who experimented with such tubes include Thomas Edison, Eugen Goldstein, Nikola Tesla, and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. With the exception of early light bulbs, such tubes were only used in scientific research or as novelties. The groundwork laid by these scientists and inventors, however, was critical to the development of subsequent Vacuum tube technology. Although thermionic emission was originally reported in 1873 by Frederick Guthrie,[11] it was Thomas Edison's apparently independent discovery of the phenomenon in 1883 that became well known. Although Edison was aware of the unidirectional property of current flow between the filament and the anode, his interest (and patent[12]) concentrated on the sensitivity of the anode current to the current through the filament (and thus filament temperature). Little practical use was ever made of this property (however early radios often implemented volume controls through varying the filament current of amplifying tubes). It was only years later that John Ambrose Fleming utilized the rectifying property of the diode tube to detect (demodulate) radio signals, a substantial improvement on the early cat's-whisker detector already used for rectification. Amplification by Vacuum tube became practical only with Lee De Forest's 1907 invention of the three-terminal "audion" tube, a crude form of what was to become the triode.[13] Being essentially the first electronic amplifier,[14] such tubes were instrumental in long-distance telephony (such as the first coast-to-coast telephone line in the US) and public address systems, and introduced a far superior and versatile technology for use in radio transmitters and receivers. The electronics revolution of the 20th century arguably began with the invention of the triode Vacuum tube. The English physicist John Ambrose Fleming worked as an engineering consultant for firms including Edison Swan,[15] Edison Telephone and the Marconi Company. In 1904, as a result of experiments conducted on Edison effect bulbs imported from the United States, he developed a device he called an "oscillation valve" (because it passes current in only one direction). The heated filament, was capable of thermionic emission of electrons that would flow to the plate (or anode) when it was at a positive voltage with respect to the heated cathode. Electrons, however, could not pass in the reverse direction because the plate was not heated and thus not capable of thermionic emission of electrons. Later known as the Fleming valve, it could be used as a rectifier of alternating current and as a radio wave detector. This greatly improved the crystal set which rectified the radio signal using an early solid-state diode based on a crystal and a so-called cat's whisker, an adjustable point contact. Unlike modern semiconductors, such a diode required painstaking adjustment of the contact to the crystal in order for it to rectify. The tube was relatively immune to vibration, and thus vastly superior on shipboard duty, particularly for navy ships with the shock of weapon fire commonly knocking the sensitive but delicate galena off its sensitive point (the tube was in general no more sensitive as a radio detector, but was adjustment free). The diode tube was a reliable alternative for detecting radio signals. As electronic engineering advanced, notably during World War II, this function of a diode came to be considered as one type of demodulation. While firmly established by history, the term "detector" is not of itself descriptive and should be considered outdated. Higher-power diode tubes or power rectifiers found their way into power supply applications until they were eventually replaced first by selenium, and later, by silicon rectifiers in the 1960s. Originally, the only use for tubes in radio circuits was for rectification, not amplification. In 1906, Robert von Lieben filed for a patent[16] for a cathode ray tube which included magnetic deflection. This could be used for amplifying audio signals and was intended for use in telephony equipment. He would later help refine the triode Vacuum tube. However, Lee De Forest is credited with inventing the triode tube in 1907 while experimenting to improve his original (diode) Audion. By placing an additional electrode between the filament (cathode) and plate (anode), he discovered the ability of the resulting device to amplify signals. As the voltage applied to the control grid (or simply "grid") was lowered from the cathode's voltage to somewhat more negative voltages, the amount of current from the filament to the plate would be reduced. The negative electrostatic field created by the grid in the vicinity of the cathode would inhibit the passage of emitted electrons and reduce the current to the plate. Thus, a few volt difference at the grid would make a large change in the plate current and could lead to a much larger voltage change at the plate; the result was voltage and power amplification. In 1908, De Forest was granted a patent (U.S. Patent 879,532) for such a three-electrode version of his original Audion for use as an electronic amplifier in radio communications. This eventually became known as the triode. De Forest's original device was made with conventional vacuum technology. The vacuum was not a "hard vacuum" but rather left a very small amount of residual gas. The physics behind the device's operation was also not settled. The residual gas would cause a blue glow (visible ionization) when the plate voltage was high (above about 60 volts). In 1912, De Forest brought the Audion to Harold Arnold in AT&T's engineering department. Arnold recommended that AT&T purchase the patent, and AT&T followed his recommendation. Arnold developed high-Vacuum tubes which were tested in the summer of 1913 on AT&T's long-distance network.[17] The high-Vacuum tubes could operate at high plate voltages without a blue glow. Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt significantly improved on the original triode design in 1914, while working on his sound-on-film process in Berlin, Germany. Tigerstedt's innovation was to make the electrodes concentric cylinders with the cathode at the centre, thus greatly increasing the collection of emitted electrons at the anode.[18] Irving Langmuir at the General Electric research laboratory (Schenectady, New York) had improved Wolfgang Gaede's high-vacuum diffusion pump and used it to settle the question of thermionic emission and conduction in a vacuum. Consequently, General Electric started producing hard vacuum triodes (which were branded Pliotrons) in 1915.[19] Langmuir patented the hard vacuum triode, but De Forest and AT&T successfully asserted priority and invalidated the patent. Pliotrons were closely followed by the French type 'TM' and later the English type 'R' which were in widespread use by the allied military by 1916. Historically, vacuum levels in production Vacuum tubes typically ranged from 10 µPa down to 10 nPa.[20] The triode and its derivatives (tetrodes and pentodes) are transconductance devices, in which the controlling signal applied to the grid is a voltage, and the resulting amplified signal appearing at the anode is a current. Compare this to the behavior of the bipolar junction transistor, in which the controlling signal is a current and the output is also a current. For Vacuum tubes, transconductance or mutual conductance (gm) is defined as the change in the plate(anode)/cathode current divided by the corresponding change in the grid to cathode voltage, with a constant plate(anode) to cathode voltage. Typical values of gm for a small-signal Vacuum tube are 1 to 10 millisiemens. It is one of the three 'constants' of a Vacuum tube, the other two being its gain μ and plate resistance Rp or Ra. The Van der Bijl equation defines their relationship as follows: g m = μ R p {\displaystyle g_{m}={\mu \over R_{p}}} The non-linear operating characteristic of the triode caused early tube audio amplifiers to exhibit harmonic distortion at low volumes. Plotting plate current as a function of applied grid voltage, it was seen that there was a range of grid voltages for which the transfer characteristics were approximately linear. To use this range, a negative bias voltage had to be applied to the grid to position the DC operating point in the linear region. This was called the idle condition, and the plate current at this point the "idle current". The controlling voltage was superimposed onto the bias voltage, resulting in a linear variation of plate current in response to positive and negative variation of the input voltage around that point. This concept is called grid bias. Many early radio sets had a third battery called the "C battery" (unrelated to the present-day C cell, for which the letter denotes its size and shape). The C battery's positive terminal was connected to the cathode of the tubes (or "ground" in most circuits) and whose negative terminal supplied this bias voltage to the grids of the tubes. Later circuits, after tubes were made with heaters isolated from their cathodes, used cathode biasing, avoiding the need for a separate negative power supply. For cathode biasing, a relatively low-value resistor is connected between the cathode and ground. This makes the cathode positive with respect to the grid, which is at ground potential for DC. However C batteries continued to be included in some equipment even when the "A" and "B" batteries had been replaced by power from the AC mains. That was possible because there was essentially no current draw on these batteries; they could thus last for many years (often longer than all the tubes) without requiring replacement. When triodes were first used in radio transmitters and receivers, it was found that tuned amplification stages had a tendency to oscillate unless their gain was very limited. This was due to the parasitic capacitance between the plate (the amplifier's output) and the control grid (the amplifier's input), known as the Miller capacitance. Eventually the technique of neutralization was developed whereby the RF transformer connected to the plate (anode) would include an additional winding in the opposite phase. This winding would be connected back to the grid through a small capacitor, and when properly adjusted would cancel the Miller capacitance. This technique was employed and led to the success of the Neutrodyne radio during the 1920s. However, neutralization required careful adjustment and proved unsatisfactory when used over a wide range of frequencies. To combat the stability problems and limited voltage gain due to the Miller effect, the physicist Walter H. Schottky invented the tetrode tube in 1919.[21] He showed that the addition of a second grid, located between the control grid and the plate (anode), known as the screen grid, could solve these problems. ("Screen" in this case refers to electrical "screening" or shielding, not physical construction: all "grid" electrodes in between the cathode and plate are "screens" of some sort rather than solid electrodes since they must allow for the passage of electrons directly from the cathode to the plate). A positive voltage slightly lower than the plate (anode) voltage was applied to it, and was bypassed (for high frequencies) to ground with a capacitor. This arrangement decoupled the anode and the control grid, essentially eliminating the Miller capacitance and its associated problems. The screen's constant voltage also reduced the anode voltage's influence on the space charge. Where the ratio of plate voltage control of plate current to grid control of the plate current (amplification factor) commonly ranges from below ten to perhaps 100, tetrode amplification factors readily exceeded 500. Consequently, higher voltage gains from a single tube became possible, reducing the number of tubes required in many circuits. This two-grid tube is called a tetrode, meaning four active electrodes, and was common by 1926. However, the tetrode had one new problem. In any tube, electrons strike the anode with sufficient energy to cause the emission of electrons from its surface. In a triode this so-called secondary emission of electrons is not important since they are simply re-captured by the more positive anode (plate). But in a tetrode they can be captured by the screen grid (thus also acting as an anode) since it is also at a high voltage, thus robbing them from the plate current and reducing the amplification of the device. Since secondary electrons can outnumber the primary electrons, in the worst case, particularly as the plate voltage dips below the screen voltage, the plate current can decrease with increasing plate voltage. This is the so-called "tetrode kink" and is an example of negative resistance which can itself cause instability.[22] The otherwise undesirable negative resistance was exploited to produce a simple oscillator circuit only requiring connection of the plate to a resonant LC circuit to oscillate; this was effective over a wide frequency range. The so-called dynatron oscillator thus operated on the same principle of negative resistance as the tunnel diode oscillator many years later. Another undesirable consequence of secondary emission is that in extreme cases enough charge can flow to the screen grid to overheat and destroy it. Later tetrodes had anodes treated to reduce secondary emission; earlier ones such as the type 77 sharp-cutoff pentode connected as a tetrode made better dynatrons. The solution was to add another grid between the screen grid and the main anode, called the suppressor grid (since it suppressed secondary emission current toward the screen grid). This grid was held at the cathode (or "ground") voltage and its negative voltage (relative to the anode) electrostatically repelled secondary electrons so that they would be collected by the anode after all. This three-grid tube is called a pentode, meaning five electrodes. The pentode was invented in 1926 by Bernard D. H. Tellegen[23] and became generally favored over the simple tetrode. Pentodes are made in two classes: those with the suppressor grid wired internally to the cathode (e.g. EL84/6BQ5) and those with the suppressor grid wired to a separate pin for user access (e.g. 803, 837). An alternative solution for power applications is the beam tetrode or "beam power tube", discussed below. Superheterodyne receivers require a local oscillator and mixer, combined in the function of a single pentagrid converter tube. Various alternatives such as using a combination of a triode with a hexode and even an octode have been used for this purpose. The additional grids include control grids (at a low potential) and screen grids (at a high voltage). Many designs use such a screen grid as an additional anode to provide feedback for the oscillator function, whose current adds to that of the incoming radio frequency signal. The pentagrid converter thus became widely used in AM receivers, including the miniature tube version of the "All American Five". Octodes, such as the 7A8, were rarely used in the United States, but much more common in Europe, particularly in battery operated radios where the lower power consumption was an advantage. To further reduce the cost and complexity of radio equipment, two separate structures (triode and pentode for instance) can be combined in the bulb of a single multisection tube. An early example is the Loewe 3NF. This 1920s device has three triodes in a single glass envelope together with all the fixed capacitors and resistors required to make a complete radio receiver. As the Loewe set had only one tube socket, it was able to substantially undercut the competition, since, in Germany, state tax was levied by the number of sockets. However, reliability was compromised, and production costs for the tube were much greater. In a sense, these were akin to integrated circuits. In the United States, Cleartron briefly produced the "Multivalve" triple triode for use in the Emerson Baby Grand receiver. This Emerson set also has a single tube socket, but because it uses a four-pin base, the additional element connections are made on a "mezzanine" platform at the top of the tube base. By 1940 multisection tubes had become commonplace. There were constraints, however, due to patents and other licensing considerations (see British Valve Association). Constraints due to the number of external pins (leads) often forced the functions to share some of those external connections such as their cathode connections (in addition to the heater connection). The RCA Type 55 is a double diode triode used as a detector, automatic gain control rectifier and audio preamplifier in early AC powered radios. These sets often include the 53 Dual Triode Audio Output. Another early type of multi-section tube, the 6SN7, is a "dual triode" which performs the functions of two triode tubes while taking up half as much space and costing less. The 12AX7 is a dual "high mu" (high voltage gain[24][25][26]) triode in a miniature enclosure, and became widely used in audio signal amplifiers, instruments, and guitar amplifiers. The introduction of the miniature tube base (see below) which can have 9 pins, more than previously available, allowed other multi-section tubes to be introduced, such as the 6GH8/ECF82 triode-pentode, quite popular in television receivers. The desire to include even more functions in one envelope resulted in the General Electric Compactron which has 12 pins. A typical example, the 6AG11, contains two triodes and two diodes. Some otherwise conventional tubes do not fall into standard categories; the 6AR8, 6JH8 and 6ME8 have several common grids, followed by a pair of beam deflection electrodes which deflected the current towards either of two anodes. They were sometimes known as the 'sheet beam' tubes and used in some color TV sets for color demodulation. The similar 7360 was popular as a balanced SSB (de)modulator. The beam power tube is usually a tetrode with the addition of beam-forming electrodes, which take the place of the suppressor grid. These angled plates (not to be confused with the anode) focus the electron stream onto certain spots on the anode which can withstand the heat generated by the impact of massive numbers of electrons, while also providing pentode behavior. The positioning of the elements in a beam power tube uses a design called "critical-distance geometry", which minimizes the "tetrode kink", plate to control grid capacitance, screen grid current, and secondary emission from the anode, thus increasing power conversion efficiency. The control grid and screen grid are also wound with the same pitch, or number of wires per inch. The windings of the control and screen grid wires are aligned such that the screen grid is in the "shadow" of the control grid. The two grids are positioned so that the control grid creates "sheets" of electrons that pass between the screen-grid wires. Aligning the grid wires also helps to reduce screen current, which represents wasted energy. This design helps to overcome some of the practical barriers to designing high-power, high-efficiency power tubes. EMI engineers Cabot Bull and Sidney Rodda developed the design which became the 6L6, the first popular beam power tube, introduced by RCA in 1936 and later corresponding tubes in Europe the KT66, KT77 and KT88 made by the Marconi-Osram Valve subsidiary of GEC (the KT standing for "Kinkless Tetrode"). "Pentode operation" of beam power tubes is often described in manufacturers' handbooks and data sheets, resulting in some confusion in terminology. While they are not strictly pentodes, their overall electrical behavior is similar. Variations of the 6L6 design are still widely used in tube guitar amplifiers, making it one of the longest-lived electronic device families in history. Similar design strategies are used in the construction of large ceramic power tetrodes used in radio transmitters. Beam power tubes can be connected as triodes for improved audio tonal quality but in triode mode deliver significantly reduced power output. Gas-filled tubes such as discharge tubes and cold cathode tubes are not hard Vacuum tubes, though are always filled with gas at less than sea-level atmospheric pressure. Types such as the voltage-regulator tube and thyratron resemble hard Vacuum tubes and fit in sockets designed for Vacuum tubes. Their distinctive orange, red, or purple glow during operation indicates the presence of gas; electrons flowing in a vacuum do not produce light within that region. These types may still be referred to as "electron tubes" as they do perform electronic functions. High-power rectifiers use mercury vapor to achieve a lower forward voltage drop than high-Vacuum tubes.Early tubes used a metal or glass envelope atop an insulating bakelite base. In 1938 a technique was developed to use an all-glass construction[27] with the pins fused in the glass base of the envelope. This was used in the design of a much smaller tube outline, known as the miniature tube, having seven or nine pins. Making tubes smaller reduced the voltage where they could safely operate, and also reduced the power dissipation of the filament. Miniature tubes became predominant in consumer applications such as radio receivers and hi-fi amplifiers. However, the larger older styles continued to be used especially as higher-power rectifiers, in higher-power audio output stages and as transmitting tubes. Subminiature tubes with a size roughly that of half a cigarette were used in one of the very earliest general-purpose digital computers, the Jaincomp-B, produced by the Jacobs Instrument Company,[28][a] and consumer applications as hearing-aid amplifiers. These tubes did not have pins plugging into a socket but were soldered in place. The "acorn tube" (named due to its shape) was also very small, as was the metal-cased RCA nuvistor from 1959, about the size of a thimble. The nuvistor was developed to compete with the early transistors and operated at higher frequencies than those early transistors could. The small size supported especially high-frequency operation; nuvistors were used in aircraft radio transceivers, UHF television tuners, and some HiFi FM radio tuners (Sansui 500A) until replaced by high-frequency capable transistors. The earliest Vacuum tubes strongly resembled incandescent light bulbs and were made by lamp manufacturers, who had the equipment needed to manufacture glass envelopes and the vacuum pumps required to evacuate the enclosures. De Forest used Heinrich Geissler's mercury displacement pump, which left behind a partial vacuum. The development of the diffusion pump in 1915 and improvement by Irving Langmuir led to the development of high-Vacuum tubes. After World War I, specialized manufacturers using more economical construction methods were set up to fill the growing demand for broadcast receivers. Bare tungsten filaments operated at a temperature of around 2200 °C. The development of oxide-coated filaments in the mid-1920s reduced filament operating temperature to a dull red heat (around 700 °C), which in turn reduced thermal distortion of the tube structure and allowed closer spacing of tube elements. This in turn improved tube gain, since the gain of a triode is inversely proportional to the spacing between grid and cathode. Bare tungsten filaments remain in use in small transmitting tubes but are brittle and tend to fracture if handled roughly—e.g. in the postal services. These tubes are best suited to stationary equipment where impact and vibration is not present. Over time Vacuum tubes became much smaller. The desire to power electronic equipment using AC mains power faced a difficulty with respect to the powering of the tubes' filaments, as these were also the cathode of each tube. Powering the filaments directly from a power transformer introduced mains-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) hum into audio stages. The invention of the "equipotential cathode" reduced this problem, with the filaments being powered by a balanced AC power transformer winding having a grounded center tap. A superior solution, and one which allowed each cathode to "float" at a different voltage, was that of the indirectly heated cathode: a cylinder of oxide-coated nickel acted as an electron-emitting cathode and was electrically isolated from the filament inside it. Indirectly heated cathodes enable the cathode circuit to be separated from the heater circuit. The filament, no longer electrically connected to the tube's electrodes, became simply known as a "heater", and could as well be powered by AC without any introduction of hum.[29] In the 1930s, indirectly heated cathode tubes became widespread in equipment using AC power. Directly heated cathode tubes continued to be widely used in battery-powered equipment as their filaments required considerably less power than the heaters required with indirectly heated cathodes. Tubes designed for high gain audio applications may have twisted heater wires to cancel out stray electric fields, fields that could induce objectionable hum into the program material. Heaters may be energized with either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). DC is often used where low hum is required. Vacuum tubes used as switches made electronic computing possible for the first time, but the cost and relatively short mean time to failure of tubes were limiting factors.[30] "The common wisdom was that valves—which, like light bulbs, contained a hot glowing filament—could never be used satisfactorily in large numbers, for they were unreliable, and in a large installation too many would fail in too short a time".[31] Tommy Flowers, who later designed Colossus, "discovered that, so long as valves were switched on and left on, they could operate reliably for very long periods, especially if their 'heaters' were run on a reduced current".[31] In 1934 Flowers built a successful experimental installation using over 3,000 tubes in small independent modules; when a tube failed, it was possible to switch off one module and keep the others going, thereby reducing the risk of another tube failure being caused; this installation was accepted by the Post Office (who operated telephone exchanges). Flowers was also a pioneer of using tubes as very fast (compared to electromechanical devices) electronic switches. Later work confirmed that tube unreliability was not as serious an issue as generally believed; the 1946 ENIAC, with over 17,000 tubes, had a tube failure (which took 15 minutes to locate) on average every two days. The quality of the tubes was a factor, and the diversion of skilled people during the Second World War lowered the general quality of tubes.[32] During the war Colossus was instrumental in breaking German codes. After the war, development continued with tube-based computers including, military computers ENIAC and Whirlwind, the Ferranti Mark 1 (one of the first commercially available electronic computers), and UNIVAC I, also available commercially. Advances using subminiature tubes included the Jaincomp series of machines produced by the Jacobs Instrument Company of Bethesda, Maryland. Models such as its Jaincomp-B employed just 300 such tubes in a desktop-sized unit that offered performance to rival many of the then room-sized machines.[28] Flowers's Colossus and its successor Colossus Mk2 were built by the British during World War II to substantially speed up the task of breaking the German high level Lorenz encryption. Using about 1,500 Vacuum tubes (2,400 for Mk2), Colossus replaced an earlier machine based on relay and switch logic (the Heath Robinson). Colossus was able to break in a matter of hours messages that had previously taken several weeks; it was also much more reliable.[31] Colossus was the first use of Vacuum tubes working in concert on such a large scale for a single machine.[31] Once Colossus was built and installed, it ran continuously, powered by dual redundant diesel generators, the wartime mains supply being considered too unreliable. The only time it was switched off was for conversion to Mk2, which added more tubes. Another nine Colossus Mk2s were built. Each Mk2 consumed 15 kilowatts; most of the power was for the tube heaters. A Colossus reconstruction was switched on in 1996; it was upgraded to Mk2 configuration in 2004; it found the key for a wartime German ciphertext in 2007.[33] To meet the reliability requirements of the 1951 US digital computer Whirlwind, "special-quality" tubes with extended life, and a long-lasting cathode in particular, were produced. The problem of short lifetime was traced largely to evaporation of silicon, used in the tungsten alloy to make the heater wire easier to draw. The silicon forms barium orthosilicate at the interface between the nickel sleeve and the cathode barium oxide coating.[7]:301 This "cathode interface" is a high-resistance layer (with some parallel capacitance) which greatly reduces the cathode current when the tube is switched into conduction mode.[34]:224 Elimination of silicon from the heater wire alloy (and more frequent replacement of the wire drawing dies) allowed the production of tubes that were reliable enough for the Whirlwind project. High-purity nickel tubing and cathode coatings free of materials such as silicates and aluminum that can reduce emissivity also contribute to long cathode life. The first such "computer tube" was Sylvania's 7AK7 pentode of 1948 (these replaced the 7AD7, which was supposed to be better quality than the standard 6AG7 but proved too unreliable).[35]:59 Computers were the first tube devices to run tubes at cutoff (enough negative grid voltage to make them cease conduction) for quite-extended periods of time. Running in cutoff with the heater on accelerates cathode poisoning and the output current of the tube will be greatly reduced when switched into conduction mode.[34]:224 The 7AK7 tubes improved the cathode poisoning problem, but that alone was insufficient to achieve the required reliability.[35]:60 Further measures included switching off the heater voltage when the tubes were not required to conduct for extended periods, turning on and off the heater voltage with a slow ramp to avoid thermal shock on the heater element,[34]:226 and stress testing the tubes during offline maintenance periods to bring on early failure of weak units.[35]:60–61 The tubes developed for Whirlwind were later used in the giant SAGE air-defense computer system. By the late 1950s, it was routine for special-quality small-signal tubes to last for hundreds of thousands of hours if operated conservatively. This increased reliability also made mid-cable amplifiers in submarine cables possible. A considerable amount of heat is produced when tubes operate, from both the filament (heater) and the stream of electrons bombarding the plate. In power amplifiers, this source of heat is greater than cathode heating. A few types of tube permit operation with the anodes at a dull red heat; in other types, red heat indicates severe overload. The requirements for heat removal can significantly change the appearance of high-power Vacuum tubes. High power audio amplifiers and rectifiers required larger envelopes to dissipate heat. Transmitting tubes could be much larger still. Heat escapes the device by black-body radiation from the anode (plate) as infrared radiation, and by convection of air over the tube envelope.[36] Convection is not possible inside most tubes since the anode is surrounded by vacuum. Tubes which generate relatively little heat, such as the 1.4-volt filament directly heated tubes designed for use in battery-powered equipment, often have shiny metal anodes. 1T4, 1R5 and 1A7 are examples. Gas-filled tubes such as thyratrons may also use a shiny metal anode since the gas present inside the tube allows for heat convection from the anode to the glass enclosure. The anode is often treated to make its surface emit more infrared energy. High-power amplifier tubes are designed with external anodes that can be cooled by convection, forced air or circulating water. The water-cooled 80 kg, 1.25 MW 8974 is among the largest commercial tubes available today. In a water-cooled tube, the anode voltage appears directly on the cooling water surface, thus requiring the water to be an electrical insulator to prevent high voltage leakage through the cooling water to the radiator system. Water as usually supplied has ions that conduct electricity; deionized water, a good insulator, is required. Such systems usually have a built-in water-conductance monitor which will shut down the high-tension supply if the conductance becomes too high. The screen grid may also generate considerable heat. Limits to screen grid dissipation, in addition to plate dissipation, are listed for power devices. If these are exceeded then tube failure is likely. Most modern tubes have glass envelopes, but metal, fused quartz (silica) and ceramic have also been used. A first version of the 6L6 used a metal envelope sealed with glass beads, while a glass disk fused to the metal was used in later versions. Metal and ceramic are used almost exclusively for power tubes above 2 kW dissipation. The nuvistor was a modern receiving tube using a very small metal and ceramic package. The internal elements of tubes have always been connected to external circuitry via pins at their base which plug into a socket. Subminiature tubes were produced using wire leads rather than sockets, however, these were restricted to rather specialized applications. In addition to the connections at the base of the tube, many early triodes connected the grid using a metal cap at the top of the tube; this reduces stray capacitance between the grid and the plate leads. Tube caps were also used for the plate (anode) connection, particularly in transmitting tubes and tubes using a very high plate voltage. High-power tubes such as transmitting tubes have packages designed more to enhance heat transfer. In some tubes, the metal envelope is also the anode. The 4CX1000A is an external anode tube of this sort. Air is blown through an array of fins attached to the anode, thus cooling it. Power tubes using this cooling scheme are available up to 150 kW dissipation. Above that level, water or water-vapor cooling are used. The highest-power tube currently available is the Eimac 4CM2500KG, a forced water-cooled power tetrode capable of dissipating 2.5 megawatts.[37] By comparison, the largest power transistor can only dissipate about 1 kilowatt. The generic name "[thermionic] valve" used in the UK derives from the unidirectional current flow allowed by the earliest device, the thermionic diode emitting electrons from a heated filament, by analogy with a non-return valve in a water pipe.[38] The US names "Vacuum tube", "electron tube", and "thermionic tube" all simply describe a tubular envelope which has been evacuated ("vacuum"), has a heater and controls electron flow. In many cases, manufacturers and the military gave tubes designations that said nothing about their purpose (e.g., 1614). In the early days some manufacturers used proprietary names which might convey some information, but only about their products; the KT66 and KT88 were "kinkless tetrodes". Later, consumer tubes were given names that conveyed some information, with the same name often used generically by several manufacturers. In the US, Radio Electronics Television Manufacturers' Association (RETMA) designations comprise a number, followed by one or two letters, and a number. The first number is the (rounded) heater voltage; the letters designate a particular tube but say nothing about its structure; and the final number is the total number of electrodes (without distinguishing between, say, a tube with many electrodes, or two sets of electrodes in a single envelope—a double triode, for example). For example, the 12AX7 is a double triode (two sets of three electrodes plus heater) with a 12.6V heater (which, as it happens, can also be connected to run from 6.3V). The "AX" has no meaning other than to designate this particular tube according to its characteristics. Similar, but not identical, tubes are the 12AD7, 12AE7...12AT7, 12AU7, 12AV7, 12AW7 (rare!), 12AY7, and the 12AZ7. A system widely used in Europe known as the Mullard–Philips tube designation, also extended to transistors, uses a letter, followed by one or more further letters, and a number. The type designator specifies the heater voltage or current (one letter), the functions of all sections of the tube (one letter per section), the socket type (first digit), and the particular tube (remaining digits). For example, the ECC83 (equivalent to the 12AX7) is a 6.3V (E) double triode (CC) with a miniature base (8). In this system special-quality tubes (e.g., for long-life computer use) are indicated by moving the number immediately after the first letter: the E83CC is a special-quality equivalent of the ECC83, the E55L a power pentode with no consumer equivalent. Some special-purpose tubes are constructed with particular gases in the envelope. For instance, voltage-regulator tubes contain various inert gases such as argon, helium or neon, which will ionize at predictable voltages. The thyratron is a special-purpose tube filled with low-pressure gas or mercury vapor. Like Vacuum tubesswimming pools all about swimming pool heatersTo extend the swimming season after summer has come and gone, many people are turning to swimming pool heaters.� A heater is great to have, especially with colder days.� If you�ve thought about buying a heater for your swimming pool, there are probably a lot of things that you�ve found yourself wondering. solar water hear system is for pools what to be points to note before investingA home swimming bath can price you INR 30,000 or a lot of. If you are doing not want a solar water heater�pool system, the swimming season won't last for over four months. However, with the correct solar power panels for your pool, expect to increase the swimming season by eight months or a lot of. This makes star pool heaters extraordinarily well-liked among householders. There are many product flooding the market, however you wish to seem for the correct panels to heat your home solar water heater. Here are many belongings you got to think about before you purchase.Types of solar water heater PanelsGlazed solar water heater collectors: These product come back at a steep worth as they're designed from metallic element, copper and iron-tempered glass. You’ll use glazed solar collectors throughout the year even throughout the colder months of the year.Unglazed solar water heater collectors: These collectors are on the market at a cost-effective worth. However, they're designed from rubber or plastic, and don't have a glass layer. Unglazed solar collectors are appropriate to be used in regions that have above-freezing temperatures.Solar water heater panel design:Pool house owners search for solar panels that provide them the utmost come on their investment. Once mounted on your home roof, a high quality solar power plant with an excellent design generates a lot of heat than the normal panels on the market within the market. a wise style can heat your pool with efficiency, saving you power bills within the method. an easy style is healthier in an out of doors setting.Mounting choices of solar power:Choose solar power panels for your athletic facility that's simple to mount in a very versatile location. The panels ought to receive most daylight. Search for product that has the capability to soak up solar power throughout the day. Ensure that you simply use solely a proprietary mounting system, and install the panels with no gaps moving the aesthetics of your roof. Simple mounting choices assist you derive the most advantages out of your solar power panels for pool.Maximizing potency �of Solar power:To ensure that your solar power panels give most potency, here are a number of the items to consider:Maximize the Solar panels' potency by guaranteeing that they're put in at the correct angle. The panels ought to get enough exposure to the daylight. Solar power plant consultants suggest that you simply want south-facing installations that are removed from shade.Use the correct pool covers to scale back evaporation and preserve most heat that's generated. Though on grid solar�pool covers don't seem to be a necessity, they're a basic inclusion to your solar pool heating kit. you ought to want dark coatings to capture the most heat from the sun.�Make sure that the installation size is between thirty % and sixty % of the full athletic facility space, or more.Choose solar collectors that job with efficiency even on an overcast, cloudy day. Most collectors do, because the sun's energy remains timeless by inclementness.Choose a star pool utility that heats your athletic facility with efficiency. Solar power �panels don't have any in operation prices and assist you save on your electricity bills within the long-term.choosing the right pool heater for the jobWhich heating system is best for your swimming pool? In most cases you�ll be able to choose between electric, gas, and solar heating systems, but the best system for your situation will vary depending on where you live and what your specific needs are. So which is best? The answer to that question depends on a fairly long list of factors, including your budget, location, the size of your pool, and how and when you normally use it: check out the full article to find out more.Having your own private, heated pool is definitely an enjoyable luxury in cooler weather, but if you don�t already have a heating system installed, you�ve first got to decide which system is best for your pool. Usually you�ll be able to choose between an electric, gas, or solar powered heating system, but there are plenty of factors to consider when deciding which is right for your pool, and for you. Each of the three options has some particular advantages and disadvantages.Electric Heat Pump SystemsElectric systems don�t generate their own heat; instead they use electricity to pump heat to the pool�s heating unit. They work by circulating the pool�s water through a filtration and heating unit. The heater draws air from outside using a fan, and uses a combination of refrigerants, evaporation coils, compressors, and condensers to transfer heat to pool water. Heated water is then returned to the pool.Electric heat pump systems are very energy-efficient (often more efficient than gas systems), but in certain circumstances lose efficiency very quickly. Most systems operate most efficiently at outside temperatures of more than 45 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit, but lose efficiency quickly if the temperature decreases. The system will still operate effectively, but it will require more electricity to do so, because the cooler outside temperature forces the system to work harder to heat water.When choosing an electric system, the size of your pool, your local climate, and when and how you plan to use the heater are all important factors to consider. Efficiency and cost are also important to your budget. The value to watch for is the Coefficient of Performance (COP), which measures the efficiency of electric systems. The higher the COP, the more efficient the system; however because different manufacturers use different efficiency tests, the COP won�t always provide a direct comparison between different systems.Electric systems are usually more expensive than gas-fired systems. Over time, however, the costs of each will even up somewhat, as electric systems are usually more efficient, and have lower annual operating costs. Properly installed and well maintained, an electric heating system will run smoothly for at least ten years.Gas-Fired SystemsGas-fired heating systems have long been a popular choice, despite their inefficiency as compared to electric and solar systems. Newer gas models are much more efficient than their predecessors, but even so they are still at a disadvantage. However, the relative efficiency of each system depends greatly on your local climate, and its suitability depends on your pool use habits, so there are going to be cases where gas is the best option.Gas systems are perhaps the most simple. They burn natural gas or propane, and heat the pool�s water by drawing water through a filter into the heating unit. The water is heated via proximity to the unit�s combustion chamber.The beauty of a gas-fired heating system is that water can be heated quickly�much more so than electrical or solar powered systems�and it can be heated regardless of external weather conditions. A gas-fired system can maintain any temperature you desire no matter what the weather. This quality, coupled with the lower efficiency and higher operating cost of the gas system, makes them really ideal for heating a pool which doesn�t see regular use.To check the efficiency of a gas-fired system, use the �heater efficiency� ratio. This is expressed as a percentage, and refers to the amount of fuel the unit consumes versus the amount that is wasted when heating water. For example, unit operating at 55% heater efficiency uses 55% of the gas it consumes in heating pool water, wasting 45% in the process. On the other hand, a 95% efficient system wastes only 5% of the gas it consumes. More efficient systems are naturally more expensive, but over the life of the unit, it�ll pay for itself if you use the pool regularly. Choosing a 95% system over a 55% system will save a little over $400 a year. Given that a properly installed and maintained system will last at least five years, you can potentially save more than $2,000 in annual heating costs.Solar-Powered SystemsSolar heating is an extremely cost-effective method of heating a swimming pool, but the suitability of these systems is heavily dependent on your local climate. Solar heating systems include four main parts: a pump, a solar collector through which water is circulated, a filter to remove debris from water entering the collector, and a valve which can be manipulated to divert water to the solar collector.The solar collector itself is a panel (or panels) installed on the home�s roof. Water enters the collector and is heated, then returned to the pool. Depending on the collector being used, it can also heat water used in the home. In addition, in hot climates the system can be used to cool water down by diverting it to the collector at night rather than during the day.Start-up costs for solar systems are competitive in comparison to gas and electric systems. The real difference in cost is in annual operating costs, where solar heating definitely comes out the winner. Another advantage is that once installed, they�re relatively simple to maintain, and a well installed and properly maintained solar heating system will usually operate smoothly for at least ten and up to twenty years.Heating System InstallationRegardless of the type of system you choose, it�s almost always best to hire a professional contractor for installation. It�ll cost extra, of course, but heating systems must be properly installed and configured for maximum efficiency, so it�s an expense that will more or less pay for itself in the long term.If you choose a solar heating system this is particularly important�a professional contractor is an absolute necessity in this case, as there are additional issues, such as safety and local building codes, to consider during planning and installation. Choose a certified or licensed contractor with experience in working with the type of system you plan to use for the best results.Don�t forget that your heating system will need annual tune-ups and will probably require servicing periodically, too. Again, it�s usually best to hire a professional for this work to keep the system in tip-top condition.the basicwater heaterAs the name indicates the purpose of water heater is to provide hot water. The most commonly used forms of this heater are the tank water heaters and the tankless water heater. The anatomy or construction of water heater is that the whole heater is insulated and there are two pipes arranged parallel to each other. Perpendicular to both these pipes there is present a gas burner at the bottom. want information on using a pool netAre you interested in putting up a swimming pool? You must plan for its safety. The best protection is a pool net. It creates a physical barrier over the entire pool. It can easily be removed if you want to use the pool. Don�t wait for an accident to buy a pool net. Read this article for pool net tips. superior quality coatings for your poolThe art of maintaining a swimming pool lies in the fact as to how well you maintain the integrity of the pool surface. The pool surface is one of the most integral parts of the pool and it is very important for you to ensure that the proper structure of the pool is maintained and the long life of the swimming pool is ensured.discount pool suppliesAll the pool supplies are available at discounted rate. These include pool heaters, pool toys, solar cover, pool chemicals, pool covers and etc.The shops offer the pool equipments at discounted rate on the seasonal basis but there number of online shops who offer the pool supplies at discounted rate all over the year. The online shops give the full description of the products if someone wants to buy. They impress their clients with the informative descriptions. Many shops allow their clients to order online and purchase later from the shop.Pool supplies are available in the second hand condition and they have the large second hand market too. People often use to sell their supplies like pumps, filters and etc after using for a short time. These supplies are quite inexpensive from the online shops. The quality no doubt is same but these are used that�s why they are available in very cheap price.There are many countries who are involved in the direct sales. They offer such a large discount like of 50% during the season. Each and every product of the pool is given at discounted rate when the summers start. Beside this, many online shops offer free shipping after buying their specific products and spend which is to be demanded.It is my advice to buy the second hand pool supplies from your friends or neighbors at discounted rate. It will be quite beneficial for you to buy. In addition to the reasonable price, there is available every information on the internet about the every single pool supplies you want to buy. These pool supplies are available in different sizes ranging from the small kid to the adults. You should try these supplies in your home and I am damn sure that you will have fun.pool cue racks what to look forSo you've got your pool table, your pool balls, and your pool cues. Now you need to start thinking about a pool cue rack. But what do you look for?!? Do you know how to find the one that meets your personal requirements?usual pool problems faced by pool ownersWhen you own a piece of real estate with a swimming pool, you can enjoy refreshing breaks from the sunshine and have fun with your family. If you experience common pool problems don't worry, they are ...pool equipment suppliesWhile the kids may spend hours swimming in the backyard without breaking a sweat, your job is to keep your pool clean and safe for guests and family. Your garage or pool house should be filled with pool equipment supplies that will keep your investment in a pool yielding dividends of enjoyment for years. The primary element of your pool maintenance kit is pool pump supplies that will keep water filtered around the clock.Your pool equipment supply search/ pool pump supplies search is incomplete if you do not look for products that will make pool maintenance easier. A pool filter timer allow pool owners to conserve energy setting the pump to work certain hours of the day, eliminating energy waste when the pool is not in use. Once your pool is covered for the night, a strong rainstorm may pass through and fill your pool cover with water. You can use a pool cover pump to drain dirty rain water from your cover before opening the pool for business.Newcomers to pool equipment supplies may be shocked at the number of different pool covers on the market. Solar covers are inexpensive products that trap heat into plastic bubbles, distributing that heat gradually to keep the pool warm year-round. Leaf nets are placed on top of traditional or solar covers to collect leaves, sticks and other debris in the autumn. Every family should own a safety cover for the backyard pool to ensure the safety of visitors and guests. A safety cover is a heavy-duty cover that anchors to the edges of the pool, protecting accident-prone guests from falling into the deep end of the pool.After the pool cover is removed in the morning, pool owners have to ensure that the water has been purified before the first cannonballs and dives. A pool owner should have an automatic cleaner and a chlorine generator in his pool equipment supplies to keep water clean at all times. An automatic cleaner will sweep the bottom of the pool and remove debris that may have gotten under the cover. Instead of trying to find the right balance between chlorine and water, a chlorine generator can be used to dole out small amounts of chlorine to avoid burnt eyes and skin discomfort.Your pool is not complete without a set of stairs to allow easy entrance into the water. Budget-conscious families may opt for plastic ladders and above-ground stairs that can be stored in the garage when the pool isn't in use. Other pool owners will opt for in-pool stairs and decks that span above the water to make access easier for their guests. Pool equipment suppliers will have all of these stairs in stock because many families opt for multiple entry options.pool service keep your pool maintainedA pool service could help you keep your pool clean and fresh at all times. The company could provide suggestions to help you maintain your pool year-round.different pool repair kitsOne thing every pool owner has found out is that not all pool repair kits are the same. There are different swimming pool repair kits that contain different materials and are meant for different areas of the pool. When you have a pool, you want to choose the correct repair kit for the pool itself and the cover. You can find these repair kits at a very reasonable price so that you can keep one on hand in the event you have a need to fix something. That way you have it when you need it, which is important to stop the damage from spreading.Choose the Right OneWhen you are looking for pool repair kits, you should look for one that has everything you would need for any repair you might encounter when you own a pool. Make sure that the repair kit is not missing anything that might happen to a pool. You may have to repair a pool cover, pool liner or even the pool equipment. It is always cheaper to repair something that it is to replace it. When you have the right lit, you can fix something before it gets any worst. This is important when you have a pool. Repairing the Pool CoverIf you have a pool cover, you need to keep pool repairs kits on hand. As soon as you notice a problem with the pool cover, you need to repair it. If you let the problem go, it could get worst and then you are going to spend more money replacing the cover than you would if you would have spent the money for the swimming pool repair kits. You need to be prepared when you own a pool. Affordable Prices The pool repair kits are more affordable than calling a professional to repair your pool or the cover. It is also cheaper than having to replace any parts of your pool. If you have a n above ground pool or an in ground pool, you should have the right swimming pool repair kits. By having the kits available when you need it, you can save time looking for a repair kit when you need it right away. You will see a savings on repairs if you have your own repair kit. This can save you time and money. If you wait to repair the problem because you do not have a lit, you could see more damage. If you have a pool and you want to keep it in good condition, you need pool repair kits included with your pool supplies. If you do not have one, you risk the chance of more damage being done while you try to find a repair kit. It is cheaper to have a kit when you need one than to wait until you find the right one. Make sure that you have the repair kits handy when you need them. This can save you more money than you think. You will make the repair quicker and prevent further damage to the pool.how to select a pool demolition companyFirst of all reconsider your decision on removing the pool. Good pools add a lot to the real estate value of your house and removing the pool may cause you a bit of loss in terms of money that you would otherwise receive when you sell the home. Pool demolition is not an easy task and you won�t like any untrained professional to work on your pool. So there are a lot of things that need consideration when you are getting your pool removed. atlantis swimming pools india best backyard swimming pool solutionMotivate prepared to hop in! Find all that you have to begin constructing your patio swimming pool, in addition to how to keep it safe and clean.Already possess a pool? Perused about pool covers, cleaners, water care, pool gear, and other support things you'll requirement for your swimming pool.Research the sort of pool you need, and why. Great arranging will offer you some assistance with minimizing additional consumptions. Give thought with reference to how you might want the territory around the pool finished and figure that as a cost. Additionally give genuine thought to support costs - pumps, channels and chemicals are normal costs that should be planned. Filling your pool will bring about your water bill to rise altogether, unless you have water tanks introduced. You will likewise need to represent the cost of water misfortune through ordinary use of the pool. Water limitations in times of dry season might mean buying in water. What's more, keep in mind pool fencing it's compulsory.Swimming pools are an extraordinary expansion to a major back yard, making an incredible approach to get to know each other as a family and get in some super fun exercise! It isn't the most effortless building venture, nonetheless. Swimming pools Design. You'll need to begin by outlining the pool that you need to fabricate. Will it be round? Square? How profound will it be? What shading do you need the pool to be? The more perplexing the outline, the higher the expense. Get a temporary worker lined up and apply for a grant with your nearby city. You may likewise need to apply with your nearby property holder's relationship, as not all areas permit pools. Your contractual worker might have the capacity to do both of these things for you, on the off chance that they are an accomplished and qualified administration. Remember that in a few regions, pools are burdened additional and you could get in a bad position for neglecting to enroll your pool with the city. It can be seen as expense avoidance. You'll need to try and out the ground however much as could be expected along what will end up being the base of the pool. This will make assembling the dividers and putting in the floor much less demanding. There are numerous approaches to review the ground however in the event that you are utilizing a slanting floor, you'll certainly need somebody with experience. Get an authorized handyman to come in and include the fundamental do Swimming pools construction for the pool. You should make a supply and filtration framework which meets the codes for your region. Just a handyman with pool experience ought to be contracted as an unpracticed one can demolish your pool.A swimming pool gives a brilliant space to patio fun so you need to make sure it's kept sheltered and secured for your family and pets. Most locales require inground pools to be fenced in, however specialists suggest utilizing extra wellbeing frameworks, for example, cautions and security spreads to make layers of insurance. Keep in mind, however, there is not a viable alternative for steady grown-up supervision and staying inside of an arm's scope of your youngster.The common methodology behind pool wellbeing frameworks is like that of the bundling on a youngster's toy. As most folks know, various boundaries avoid access to a bundled toy. What's more, however a pool is not fixed with ultra-thick plastic, nor does it highlight a battery spread requiring a screwdriver, it too ought to be ensured by various layers. While there's no preferred wellbeing arrangement over consistent grown-up supervision, you can likewise avoid mishaps by utilizing a security spread, fabricating a wall, and introducing a caution framework.pool renovation 5 creative ideas to reinvent your pool�Whether your family has outgrown your pool or it has suffered weather damage, you�ve moved into a house with a long-abandoned pool or you just want to be the envy of your neighborhood, it may be time to call your pool renovation experts.pool heater parts important pool heaters itself 987881pool heater repair service can help make swimming experience long lasting 382497pool heater repair major concern swimmers 225417increasing life your pool heater 56989choose solar pool heater 1672811how choose best pool heater parts your pentair pool heater 808110If you own a pool, you may be aware of the value of having an efficient and effective heating system in a pool. However, swimming pool heaters can assist in opening your pool earlier and also in keeping it open all through the fall, thereby extending the pool value, property value and the periods of swimming season. If the climate is warm enough, maintaining the heating system in a pool allows your pool to be open throughout the year. Conversely, Pentair heater parts are very efficient owing to recent technology advances in pool heating.Pentair heater parts include Inground Heaters and Aboveground Heaters. The inground heaters efficiently heat up the pool fast and nothing can beat this heater offering comfort in the morning. It helps by keeping the pool warm that swimming need not be missed even during Fall or Spring. The pool heating economy is the key and ensures that the heat generated gets transferred to pool water to nearly 100% efficiency. However, gas heaters with high efficiency heat fast and are economical to run. They come in two brands Master Temp and Minimax CH.The Master Temp offers high performance and are eco friendly heaters offering reliability, convenience and efficiency features. Its best features are class energy efficiency, fast heating, eco-friendly, rustproof handles exterior, tough, digital display offering easy viewing, low NOx emission and can be shut-off when not required. MiniMax CH is designed to offer reliable and easy use. It is faster to heat, low operating costs, high efficiency, easy installation, rounded corners design and precision electronic thermostat. Aboveground Heaters also offer high performance, efficiency of operating and long term reliability. They are in two brands MiniMax 100 that is lightweight and efficient. It is lightweight and has bronze headers. These are pilot versions in natural gas or propane. These are dependable operation and the controls are designed offering user friendly and easy access. It installs up to altitude 3500 ft. MiniMax 75 also offers high performance and is the right aboveground pools. They offer easy access and can be installed by a single person. These are pilot version in natural gas.The pool heaters that are popular use propane or natural gas in swimming pool heaters, such that the water flows from one port and picks up heat from heat exchanger present in the heater and thereby exits into another port. In this way maintain a preset temperature. However, nowadays the efficiency of the pool heaters has increased and is available in all popular brands Hayward, Pentair, Jandy, Sylvan, Coates, Sta-Rite and Raypak.how build your own solar swimming pool heater 1402375why you must choose solar pool heater warming your swimming pool 1189415swimming pool heating 1189413just what means does solar furnace swimming pool actually functions 1184354whats most effective swimming pool heating alternative solar gas electric 1184353low nox pool heaters greener option 913952make your pool efficient pool contractor 686472few things know about solar pool heating systems 5428193 reasons why solar pool heaters worth considered 1664540739670 tenants want a pool heater314526 buried oil tank in the back yard for pool heaterI am rehabbing a house that has a buried oil tank in the backyard. It is not needed anymore. The house is in Pa. I popped off the fill lid today and it has about 1 inch of fuel left in it. It has probably been in the ground for a long time and does not appear to be leaking.1. Should I just empty it, rip the top off and fill it with dirt?2. Should I call in someone who will basically do the same thing? I am concerned he will not sign off on anything without a environmental test. Big$$$$3. Should I just leave it in, disclosure it of course, and invariably have either the home inspector/bank underwriter or appraiser basically push me back to option 2?Basically is there anyway out of this, less having an expensive environmental test.Thanks, never had a buried tank on the lot before.833576 real estate investing in collegeHello everyone, I am currently an undergrad who is interested in getting into real estate investing. Is there any advice you would give to a newbie real estate investor who is also a full time student? Such as:Any advice that anyone may offer would be helpful, Thanks!7579 water heaterHas anyone changed a water heater here on this group? Are there any online links on step by step process?231684 water heaterDoes anyone have recommendations of who use in cedar rapids for water heater repair/replacement? I've got one that has leak. Thanks!110361 water heater I just had my first water heater go out in one of my 12 plexes.. I am curious how much should i expect to spend to replace it? Each building runs 2 heaters and are roughly 100 gallon tanks. They quoted us about $1200 for the water heater and 200 for installation. Is this in line with what you guys expect? Are there any ones to go for or avoid? tankless/tank or a certain brand to pay up and get? Thanks in advance, Luke 303843 new member from morrison coloradoAfter a long career in the software industry, during which I also successfully rehabbed and resold several residential projects as well as an entire small (6000 sq ft) commercial building and a Best-of-Denver award-winning restaurant, I am focused now entirely on real estate in the greater Denver area and Morrison in particular.At present I have four projects underway at once, which is a little too much for my capital and experience levels. I am looking for one or more partners for these and future projects.667380 tenant requesting certificate of rent for their taxesI had a tenant request a certificate of Rent for their own taxes. I haven't been able to find anything about that, any guidance would be appreciated.2013 03 28 invest in homes with a poolMaybe it’s the 8 bags of shock I’ve been exposed to over the last two days that’s “inspired” me to right this post, but either way, I know I’m not the only one with the looming feeling investors might face this time of year. “Should I buy a house that has a pool?” Create an account today to get BiggerPocket's best blog articles delivered to your inboxIn places like Arizona, we might look at things a little differently, (ie, any relief from the scorching desert is a plus!) If you’re in the midwest, having a pool might mean different costs and value. But, let’s look at the pros and cons of purchasing a rental or flip that has a pool. I’ve seen my share of distressed properties, and I guess after awhile, I feel like a Ghostbuster walking through freshly-minted foreclosures. (“I ain’t afraid of no ghosts!!”) This comes with the exception of pools, though. A dark green pool may be hiding years of neglect, bad siding, algae, and who knows what else. It can be difficult to estimate what pool repairs may be needed, and if you have say, 20 minutes to do a full inspection of the house, the "ifs" of a range of $50-$5,000 can swing your margins in the red quickly. If the home is a short sale, the pool may be sitting for months longer and cost more than you initially estimated, as well. If you have longer to get an inspection, and a pool person is able to give you an estimate on getting the pool back in working condition, then the initial costs may be worth the investment. However, there’s further things to consider. Much of this might be negated if you're flipping the property. Similar to a fireplace in a warm-weather state building in more value (go figure!), a pool may add extra attraction to your property as well. It's advisable not to ever add the pool yourself, since dollar for dollar you will never re-coop even your costs. However, if there are matching houses and one has a pool, the one with the extra amenity may help you procure a buyer that much faster, therefore decreasing your holding time and/or increasing your sales price. I know many investors out there wouldn’t touch a pool with a 6′ pole (or a skimmer, I suppose!), but others find it to be a draw as a rental or a flip. What do you think? Is it worth the risk and added cost or do you stay far away from homes with a liquid headache in the backyard? Photo:propertysnaps218437 poolTenant owned 3 foot Walmart type pool. Do you allow them or take a razor to the side? We just bought a tenant occupied rental and there is a preexisting pool that is not part of the property. Our solution was to write in an addendum freeing us from all liability and matiness of the pool. Pool HeaterHow To Pick A Pool Cover? End of the swimming season? Now you need to cover your swimming pool with a pool cover as well as state an extremely good-bye to the swimming times. But the greatest trouble that accompanies you after completion of the swimming period is just how to keep the pool. The straight solution is 'use swimming pool covers to maintain your swimming pool in excellent conditions. For, swimming pool covers guard the swimming pool and also shield it from unwanted debris and also water. So, choosing one apt pool cover becomes a should for you. Additionally, you require pool covers to block the swimming pool while you are far from house so that the kids may not try swimming alone. Let's take a peep right into exactly how can you shop at convenience for pool covers. There are various types of swimming pool covers out there place today. First of all plainly construct your needs prior to you check out for a swimming pool cover. The typical swimming pool covers are the vinyl covers that are laid on the pool and taken care of with the help of sand bags or some other hefty things on the edges of the swimming pool. They are temporary swimming pool covers which can be removed easily as they are lightweight. Though, safety and security covers are among one of the most trusted covers when it comes to a period long covering for your pool. They are like a barrier to the pool. These covers stop your children from getting on the pool. Usually the temporary swimming pool covers leave a little space in between the deck and also the cover. It obtains simple for the youngsters to slide via that void and jump within. If you acquire safeguard covers from the marketplace for you pool, it would certainly allow you to have a complete sight of the water inside the pool. It would make you take pleasure in the atmosphere that pool has actually created in your backyard. The net of pool cover is a solid metal web that is carefully woven right into a pool cover. Moreover, the cover can be eliminated with in 10 mins. The automatic covers leave with the sides of the swimming pool and obtain rolled inside the box by themselves. You just need to press a button to do all this. You can also make use of opaque pool covers too. Yet among the significant problems faced while using an opaque pool cover is standing water. The rain water does not go inside the swimming pool however it gets collected on the pool cover. So, you can utilize unique swimming pool covers with pumping system with it. For, the pump would effectively eliminate the water from your swimming pool cover. So make your choice after considering all the various pool covers in the market. As a pool owner, you can additionally engage a swimming pool developer for your pool cover. He will certainly lay out the demands of your pool according to the design of your residence. So you would obtain the needed security for your swimming pool and a rather garden containing swimming pool in your home.Pool Services - Building, Cleaning, Decks, Heater, Installation, Plastering, Renovations, Repair, Resurfacing | +1 (833) 631-0557Contact Us Today!+1 (833) 631-0557USAhttps://sites.google.com/site/bestpoolservices24/http://poolservices24.s3-website.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/