Chapter 32: Societies at Crossroads

Vocabulary

• Muhammad Ali: A military leader who modeled his army after European forces that took over Egypt. He ruled over Egypt from 1805 to 1848. Muhammad Ali made Egypt an essentially autonomous region within the Ottoman Empire. 

• Opium War: This war was between the British and the Chinese and lasted from 1839 to 1842. It began when China sought to destroy the opium trade, in which the British grew Opium in China. The British were outraged and China paid the consequences by being defeated handily. 

• Zaibatsu: is a Japanese term referring to industrial and financial business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size allowed for control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until the end of World War II.

• Young Turks: Also known as the Ottoman Society for Union and Progress. Ironically, the majority of the members of this political party were neither young nor Turkish. In 1908 they forced the government to reestablish the constitution of 1876 and the Parliament, and in 1909 they dethroned Abdul Hamid and put into rule a puppet sultan. 

• Taiping Rebellion: This rebellion occurred from 1850 to 1864, and brought the Qing dynasty to the brink of collapse. This rebellion called for the abolition of private property, creation of communal wealth, prohibition of footbinding and concubinage, free public education, and simplification of the written language while also providing literacy for the masses. 

• Self-Strengthening Movement: A reform program set up by the Qing government in response to the Taiping and other rebellions in China. This flourished in the 1860s and 1870s. This allowed for grants to be levied to local rulers to raise troops, levy taxes, and run bureaucracies. 

• Tanzimat: Reformers who attacked Ottoman law with the goal of making all Europeans accept it and recover their sovereignty. They used France’s legal system as a guide when creating new codes. 

• Spheres of influence: Spheres of influence refer to the influence foreign governments had over the dismantling and the control of the Chinese Empire. Some examples were; France claimed Vietnam as its colony, and Japan forced China to recognize the Koreas as independent states and Taiwan also. 

• Boxer Rebellion: An antiforegin movement spearheaded by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, which was a militarily based group. The Chinese government gave their support to this group in an effort to emancipate themselves from foreign powers. However, this rebellion failed miserably – it was crushed by in a bloody retaliation by foreign military after the group made attacks on foreign embassies. 

• Alexander II: Alexander II was a Tsar of Russia in the nineteenth century. He abolished serfdom in the Russian empire and led his empire into industrialization, while also undergoing social and political reform. 

• Meiji Dynasty: A dynasty that included major reforms in Japan. During this time, social order was abolished, the tax system was revamped, the transition to a constitutional government occurred, and the economy was remodeled. 

Focus Question #1

                              Compare reaction to foreign domination in the Ottoman Empire, China and Japan.

China and Japanese reactions were majorly that of toleration, because they lacked the industrialized technology that would allow for them to emancipate themselves.

Ottomans fought amongst them, like the Young Turks. China is a prime example of toleration. The Opium War, a humiliating defeat for China, ended because the Chinese didn’t have the technology that Europeans did. Swords are no matches for rifles. The Chinese lagged behind the Europeans in warfare technology. Chinas dynasties lacked productivity in creating weapons for ware and battle. Unlike the Europeans who developed armies with the use of the gun. Like China, Japan was not prepared for the ships demanding foreign friendship and trade. This led to the acceptance and interaction between places. Ottomans reformed and the Young Turks interfered but eventually the Ottomans evened out. Other reformations and rebellions formed such as the Boxer Rebellion in China, and later the Meiji Dynasty arose in Japan.

The Ottoman, Chinese and Japanese Empires all enjoyed a powerful dominance on the world stage throughout much of the classical and postclassical era. However, after the 15th century ended these Europe began to take control of world commerce leaving these three civilizations in the dust. The responses by the Chinese, Japanese and Ottomans were very similar in that all three faced political, social and economic reform brought on by civilian revolts that took their inspiration from Europe and enlightenment ideals. These rebellions not only forced a great change in these regions but also brought their empires back to prominence.

In the Ottoman Empire rulers attempted to bring back military and economic power, but not much was accomplished until the Tanzimat, or “re-organization era.” Here the Ottomans increased individual rights and provided more education. However, this still wasn’t enough and a group called the young Turks finally convinced rulers to adapt a constitution and other liberties.

China’s reform was too brought about by a revolt, the Taiping Rebellion, along with the Opium War. The Self Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days of Reforms worked to bring China more industrialized and free society but it wasn’t until the Boxer Rebellion that China was finally shocked into eliminating empirical rule. Japan changed under the Meiji Dynasty, which switched the tax from grain to money, created a constitution and remodeled the economy. They also started a rapid industrial movement that turned Japan into a world super power once again.

Focus Question #2

                              Compare and contrast the nationalist movements of China and the Ottoman Empire.

China and the Ottoman both preferred similar education but while the Ottoman focused on a simple military China used a blend of Chinese and European culture.

Mahmud sought to restore the military tradition of the Ottoman Empire and incorporated a highly defined drill military. The Tanzimat incorporated education and Enlightenment ideals, which could be compared to Chinese blend of European values. With the Self Strengthening Movement in China, foreign interactions sparked the foundation for blend. Although the movement in China ultimately did bad things for the empire, it displays the foreign pressure. The Young Turks later developed into the Turks that became what was known as “The Nation Without a State.” The Turks had been out casted from the Ottoman Empire and created a nation in Paris, loyal to ideas of universal healthcare, public education and freedom of religion.

The Ottoman and Chinese Empires faced very similar nationalist movements at the hands of foreign dominance. Both areas experienced civil uprisings that called for reform both politically and economically, and modeled these changes after other European powers. However, the Ottoman movements were less violent and had more religious conflict than those in China. The Young Turks and Taiping Rebels were very similar in their respective societies. Both groups fought for individual freedoms, increased military power, and a constitutional government. The Young Turks were more successful though and their government crushed the Taping’s. Reform was also slow developing in both areas. It took multiple rebellions and attempted reforms to accomplish anything productive.

It is interesting though, that in China the Boxer Rebellion (which finally toppled the pillars of reform) was a rebellion that was against reform. It turned out so bloody and bad however, that the Chinese people were basically shocked into turning their society around. In the Ottoman Empire religious policy played a much greater role than in China. Reformers faced serious challenges from devout Muslims who were against religious freedom something China really didn’t have to deal with.

Focus Question #3

                              Compare and contrast Japanese industrialization with earlier western European industrialization.

Japanese industrialization was driven by somewhat of a “peer pressure” from other countries whereas European industrialization began because of a demand for product and more importantly, a venture for profit.

In both locations students and officials were assigned to further explore technology and industrial ways. Western Europeans ventured to the United States spreading industry and when Japan began to industrialize, they too ventured about including to the United Sates in 1882 and 1883. Perry who invaded Edo commanded a treaty of friendship that forced Japan into interaction and industrialization. Industry in Western Europe was never forced, it mainly just expanded.

Industrializaiton in Japan was later than Europe due to its isolation and lack of railroad system reaching Japan. The Japanese industrialization possessed a surprising number of similarities with the one in the west considering it was separated by hundreds of years and thousands of miles. Like in the West, peasants bore most of the working burden; the economy became more publicly controlled than governmentally, and it created vast wealth and power for Japan as a whole. However, Japan did not see union movement like that in the west, never witnessed the mass migration the prior revolution had caused, and were almost forced into doing it, rather than it being something that was innovative like in the West.

As can be expected Japanese peasants lost out much like that of their western counterparts. Early taxes cost peasants almost 50 percent of their crops and produced nearly 90 percent of government revenue. They also supplied most of the labor, which was brutal. They didn’t have the support of a socialist movement to increase working conditions either. Zaibatsus also became prominent in Japan similar to the businesses leaders that dominated the economy in the West.

The greatest difference between Japan and the West was the fact that a large-scale migration didn’t really occur. In the West business entrepreneurs flocked to America in search of wealth creating a vast cultural melting pot that changed the society forever. Japan didn’t really witness any of this. Also, Japans revolution was really forced on their culture. Foreign dominance showed that industrialization was necessary to be a world power. The western countries saw industrialization merely as an opportunity to become wealthy and advance them. It was almost a luxury.