Chapter 16: India and the Indian Ocean Basin

Vocabulary

• Harsha: Harsh was the name of a King that reigned from 606 to 648 (C.E.) in the lower Ganges valley. He came to the throne at a young age—he was just sixteen years old. He led campaigns to conquer much of northern India and many Himalayan states. Harsha was also a devout Buddhist. 

• Sind: The name of a territory that located in the Indus River valley in northwestern India. Was conquered in the mid eighth century by Muslims. Remained a Muslim ruled territory until 1258. 

• Chola: The Chola Kingdom was situated in south India and ruled that area from 850 to 1267 (C.E.). This kingdom was more decentralized then most others during this time period, and were very flexible as long as order was kept and taxes were paid on time. 

• Delhi: The established Islamic state in northern India. Was known as the sultanate of Delhi. The ruler of Delhi, was called the sultan. This city’s control, however, did not really occur outside of the city of Delhi. 

• Mahmud of Ghazni: Mahmud of Ghazni was a leader of Afghanistan Turks. During the years in between 1001 and 1027 (C.E.) he led many raids into India. From these raids he was able to annex several states in northwestern India and Punjab. Mahmud and his forces especially targeted sites related to Buddhism and Hinduism, for they were Muslim. 

• Dhows and Junks: Two different types of trading ships. Dhows are favored by Indian, Persian, and Arab sailors. On the other hand, junks are favored by the Chinese and Southeast Asians. 

• Vishnu and Shiva: Vishnu and Shiva are two gods from the religion of Hinduism. Vishnu was the “preserved of the world, a god who observed the universe from the heavens” and sometimes came down in human form to teach them a lesson. Shiva, on the other hand, was the god of fertility, while also being the god of destruction. 

• Sufis: Sufis were Islamic missionaries, also known as mystics. Some Sufis practiced ascetic lifestyles, while others devoted their lives to helping the poor. All Sufi worked on deepening their spiritual relationship with Allah. 

• Bhakti movement: This movement was, simply put, a cult of love and devotion that was created to help diminish and possibly erase the distinctions between Hinduism and Buddhism. The Bhakti movement emerged in southern India, during the 12th century, and from there diffused north. 

• Raja: The term “raja” literally translates into “king”. The state of Funan borrowed this Sanskrit idea and then claimed divine sanctions for their rule—the same way that the original Hindu Rajas in India did. 

• Angkor: Angkor is the name of a kingdom in Southeast Asia. This kingdom ruled from 880-1431 (C.E.). Since they were on the Eurasian mainland, they could base their economy on agriculture and trade, leading to much development. Contained a religion that was a mixture of Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous morals/values. 

• Melaka: The Kingdom of Melaka received Islam during the fifteenth century. After that point, they encouraged the religion throughout the surrounding regions and imposed it on their own. They soon became economic leaders in maritime trade because of their advantageous location near the Strait of Melaka.

Focus Question #1

            How did Islam affect India? What allowed Islam and Hinduism to coexist?

            Islam affected India in positive ways, such as allowing members of the lower Hindu castes a chance at creating a better life for themselves, and negative ways, such as the raids led by Mahmud of Ghazni in which he tried to impose Islam on Indian states he annexed. Islam and Hinduism were allowed to coexist largely because “both religions drew on long-established and long-observed cultural traditions”.

            Another positive way in which Islam affected India was that it was accepted, and later on practiced, by a large number of those residing in merchant communities. Many of these merchants later on took the religion to Southeast Asia, where it also had positive and negative affects. The second positive way in which Islam affected India, and the one that was stated before, was that those in the lower levels of the Hindu caste system would be given a chance to live a better life if they converted to Islam and escaped the social stratification of the Hindus. Sometimes, an entire subcaste would decide to convert to Islam, and then they would just continue their rules in society as if nothing had changed.

            On the other hand, a negative way in which Islam affected India was that when Islam was forced on an Indian population, they did not favor its adoption. This was largely in part because when an Indian region was being forced to practice Islam they were most likely being conquered, and Islamic conquerors tended to give high ranked religious and military positions almost exclusively to their own people. Their own people included Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The second example was also in the first paragraph—the raids of Mahmud. Mahmud’s raids did not encourage Indians to convert, rather it was largely discouraging.

            Hinduism and Islam could coexist because they were so dissimilar they did not feel the other was a threat. This is unlike Judaism and Islam, Judaism and Christianity, or Christianity and Islam, in which because the three religions are so similar, they tend to argue on certain aspects. This arguing can lead to religious wars. However, since the two religions were so different, and those who followed them already set in their own religious ways, Hinduism and Islam coexisted for the most part peacefully.

Focus Question #2

            Describe the trade relationships in the Indian Ocean.

            Because agricultural efficiency and production increased substantially during this period, trade in the Indian Ocean and in the Indian Ocean basin was allowed to flourish. Areas such as Southeast Asia, India, Eastern Asia, and the Middle East began to utilize their close proximity to one another to create interlinked economies and a series of complex trade networks.

            The Indian Ocean had a system of monsoons, and once the navigators figured out these patterns, maritime trade became a large part of any region’s economy. This was made possible by the advances in agriculture due to the irrigation systems being applied. The increased productivity also was the catalyst for substantial population growth. The population growth led to urban growth, which led to many port cities becoming centers of maritime trade.

            Early maritime trade ventures were done with ships sailing along the coastline, but with the monsoons mapped out this did not have to be done any longer. Now that sailors and navigators could find their way around the Indian Ocean, they built larger ships, which allowed for more cargo to trade. Two examples of these larger ships were known as the Dhows (favored by the Indians, Persians, and Arbas) and the Junks (favored by the Chinese and southeastern Indians).

            A few examples of the products (not even close to all of them) being traded through maritime trade in the Indian Ocean during this time period included: cotton textiles, sugar, carpets, leather, steel, silk, porcelain, spices, horses, gold, and ivory.

Focus Question #3

            Where and by what means did Islam and Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia?

            By the 8th century (C.E.), Muslim and Hindu merchants had travelled into Southeast Asia not only bringing their goods to trade, but also their religions, by land and by water.

            The majority of Muslim merchants arriving to Southeast Asia arrived from one the following places; southern Arabia, Persia, Gujarat (in India), or one of the southern Indian port cities. For the first few centuries, Islam was simply brought by merchants and learned by the inhabitants so that they would have a common ground from which they could conduct trade easier. Gradually, however, as time went on, rulers of more and more states became interested with Islam and decided to encourage it. Although they encouraged it, more southeast Asian rulers did not enforce it on their people—they allowed them to practice Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions if the person so desired.

            Islam really took off when the state of Melaka adopted the faith and sponsored it throughout the southernmost portion of the Malay Peninsula. This occurred during the 15th century-mid 15th century, when the Melakan ruling class converted from Hinduism to Islam. And since Melaka was placed at such an advantageous location in that time period’s maritime trade, it allowed for the diffusion of Islam through sea/ocean trade routes as well.

            Hinduism arrived to Southeast Asia by land and by sea/ocean primarily from India, also through merchants. Like with Islam, rulers did not convert outright to Hinduism, rather they first learned the ways and formalities so as to conduct trade easier. Once having their interest hooked however, then many rulers would convert and make it their region’s official religion. Southeast Asia also borrowed other innovations and ideas from India, such as courts that included administrators rituals that were extremely similar to those performed in India.