Chapter 29: Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

Vocabulary

• Popular Sovereignty: An idea formulated by John Locke that basically stated that rulers receive their power from the people that they govern. If the ruler doesn’t meet the approval of the people that they receive it from, then they can be deposed of. 

• Simon Bolivar: He played a key role in South America’s struggle from independence from Europe. He was a large supporter of popular sovereignty. He was inspired by the United States in North America, and that was his goal – to create a huge confederation of states similar to that of the United States.

• Volksgeist: Literally translates to “People’s spirit”, a term that was created by the German philosopher Herder. A nation’s Volksgeist would not come to maturity unless people studied their own unique culture and traditions. 

• Declaration of Independence: This was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. It expressed the ideas of popular sovereignty, which was thought up by John Locke.

• Conservatism: An idea that called for gradual change that came about by general consensus, but condemned radical or revolutionary change, which could possibly lead to anarchy. 

• Zionism: A movement that sought to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine. This in turn led to tense relationships between Jewish peoples and Palestinians who were displaced by Jewish settlers. 

• Liberalism: An idea that accepted all sorts of change as normal. They considered conservatives as people who were trying to justify the status quo, maintain the privileges enjoyed by favored classes, and avoid dealing with social inequality in societies. 

• Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: A document from the French Revolution (1789) that was influenced by the Declaration of Independence. In turn, this influenced other revolutionary movements

• Italian and German Unification: This came after the dismantling of Napoleon’s empire and the fall of the Holy Roman Empire, the wide assortment of kingdoms and states in present-day Italy and Germany united. This was progressed by Prime Minister Bismarck, who by leading successful military expansions against Denmark, Austria, and France, swelled German pride. 

• The Civil Code: The Civil Code was a reformed civil law under the reign of Napoleon. This helped stabilize French society by establishing a merit-based society and affirming the legal and political equality of all adult men. This code also protected private property. 

• Haitian Revolution: This was a revolution in which the slaves revolted against the French. At the time, this was the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Although Napoleon sent 40,000 troops to retake the colony, the newly proclaimed Haitians, sent them packing with the aid of yellow fever ravaging the French troops.

• Women’s emancipation: The feminist movement didn’t really take off in Europe until it had taken off in America. The catalyst for this was Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902). She organized a conference of feminists who met at Seneca Falls in 1848, and at this they decided on twelve demands that the government pass so that they would have equal rights as men. 

Focus Question #1

            What did all the revolutions have in common? What was different?

            All the major revolutions of this time period, those of the Haitians, the French, the American, and those in Latin America, were inspired by the Enlightenment ideals of freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty. The difference between the revolutions, however, lied in those who led them. In Haiti, it was the slaves who far outnumbered the suppressing French. In France, it was the common folk who abolished the monarchy, and established a republic. In America, they threw off British rule, while those in Latin America were led by Creole elites against the ruling Spanish and Portuguese.

            The Enlightenment ideals, especially those thought up by John Locke and published in his book Second Treatise of Civil Government in 1690, were found at the very core of these afore mentioned major revolutions. At the center of these ideals were the most famous three – freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty, the last of which was coined by John Locke himself. These were considered by those who participated in the revolutions to be obligations of the government to its people – and they were not being met. Therefore, as revolutions began to occur, a domino effect happened, and just like that, colonies were declaring their independence left and right.

            Haiti is the only time in history where an independence movement led by slaves has succeeded. The French settlers there were outnumber by tens to hundreds of thousands, as then called Saint Domingue was primarily a plantation state. After the slaves took over, Napoleon sent 40,000 troops in an attempt to retake the newly proclaimed Haiti, however the former slaves prevailed with the aid of yellow fever ravaging French troops.

            In contrast, high ranking Creoles in South America led revolts against Portugal and Spain in a fight for their independence.  This was also similar to the American Revolution, where prominent patriotic American figures are credited with the beginning of the American Revolution. Both of these previous two were not radical revolutions; however, they were efficient and successful in their attempts. The French Revolution is by far the most extreme and radical. Large numbers of harsh killings occurred, such as the beheading of King Louis XVI, and the Revolutionist government was incredibly unstable.

Focus Question #2

            To what extent did ideology govern the history of Europe and the Americas in the 19th century?

            During the Age of Revolution, from approximately 1750 to 1914, ideologies such as conservatism and liberalism played a large role in the establishment of new states and governments in former colonies and the overthrowing of the French monarchy.

            Conservatism was an ideology that called for gradual change that came about by general consensus, but condemned radical or revolutionary change, which could possibly lead to anarchy. Most conservatives of this era approved of the American Revolution, which met the criteria of gradual and coming about by general consensus, but disapproved of the French Revolution, which was far more radical, and at times chaotic.

            Liberalism was an ideology that accepted all sorts of change as normal. They considered conservatives as people who were trying to justify the status quo, maintain the privileges enjoyed by favored classes, and avoid dealing with social inequality in societies. Liberalists championed the Enlightenment views of freedom and equality, and were at the forefront of the abolition and feminist movements.

            Both of these ideologies were critical to revolutions during this time period. Conservatism played a larger role in the more gradual struggle of America for its independence from the British, while liberalism was favored and more popular in France. Liberalism prospered in France because of the huge social inequality from  the absolute monarchy form of government.

Focus Question #3

            What were the overall causes of Latin America independence movements?

            The overall causes of the Latin America independence movements were; the racism shown by Spaniards to creoles, such as Simon Bolivar, the lack of free trade, a weakening Spain, a growing sense of nationalism in South America, and the effect of other successful revolutions, such as America breaking free from British rule.

            Creoles, albeit being largely respected in non-Spaniard regions, were disrespected by the Spanish crown when it came to being appointed to positions of power in the newly established colonies. They were rarely granted the roles of viceroys or placed on one of the many audencias (courts) by the Spanish government, which was irritating to them. Therefore, they were at the core of the Latin American independence movements, the key example being Simon Bolivar.

            The lack of free trade also played a large role in these movements. South America produced a wide variety of profitable goods, but was limited to trade with Spain or Portugal, whichever of the two had colonized the region. A growing sense of nationalism also played a minor role in this revolution – they were Americans, not Spaniards, and this was used to convince many of the lower class to contribute to the revolution.

            At the time, Spanish King Charles III died, and his son Charles IV took over. He was an inefficient ruler, and they were soon invaded by the French, led by Napoleon. A weakened Spain contributed to the reasons for Latin Americans to claim their independence. The final contribution came from other revolutions, such as the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution, which gave Latin Americans the confidence that revolutions against stronger, more powerful states could succeed.