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Vocabulary
Dar al-Islam: An Arabic term that refers to larger society of Muslims. The direct translation is the “house of Islam” and this includes all the lands under Islamic rule.
Muhammad: He was born about 570 (C.E.) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. His full name was Muhammad ibn Abdullah. Muhammad was the founder of Islam and is considered a prophet to those who adhere to Islam—Muslims.
Quran: As Islam grew, Muhammad's followers prepared written texts of his teachings, and than combined them altogether in the Quran. The Quran literally translates into “recitation”, which makes sense because the followers were simply reciting Muhammad’s revelations.
Hijra: Hijra literally translates into “migration”. This occurred when Muhammad was pressured out of Mecca because of his verbal attacks on idolatry. He, and many of his followers, than moved to Medina, which is to the north of Mecca and which meant, “the city of the prophet”.
Five Pillars of Islam: This is the foundation of the Islamic faith as described by Muhammad. “(1) Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only god and Muhammad as his prophet. (2) They must pray to Allah daily while facing Mecca. (3) They must observe a fast during the daylight hours of the month of Ramadan. (4) They must contribute calms for the relief of the weak and poor. (5) And, in honor of Muhammad’s visits to Mecca in 629 and 632, those who are physically and financially able must undertake the hajj and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca.”
Caliphs: The literal translation of caliph is “deputy”. These served as religious, political, and military leaders in the Muslim community after Muhammad died. The reason they were not prophets is because Muhammad was the “seal of the prophets”.
Shia: A sect of Muslim that was created because of the disagreements over succession to Muhammad. They recognized Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and his descendents as caliphs.
Sunni: A sect of Muslim that was created because of the disagreements over succession to Muhammad. Those who adhered to Sunni Islam recognized Abu Bakr and his descendents as caliph.
The Hajj: The Hajj is a holy pilgrimage to Mecca that draws hundreds of thousands of Muslims from all over the world to Saudi Arabia. This is an annual event.
Sufi: Sufis were Islamic missionaries, also known as mystics. Some Sufis practiced ascetic lifestyles, while others devoted their lives to helping the poor. All Sufi worked on deepening their spiritual relationship with Allah.
Sakk: Sakk were letters of credit that was accepted in many banks in Islamic territories. The modern word “check” is drawn from this word. Sakk enabled merchants to complete distant business transactions without having to deal with cash.
Algebra: A form of mathematics derived from India’s “Hindi” numerals, “Arabic” numerals are given credit for being the first form of advanced mathematics. This concentrated on algebra (an Arabic word), while also shedding light on geometry and trigonometry.
Sharia: The Islamic holy law. This emerged after Muhammad and offered guidance on the “proper behavior” in almost all aspects of life. Based off the Quran.
Focus Question #1
Where and by what means did Islam spread?
The religion of Islam spread all throughout the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, and even to India, largely via the Islamic conquests, and somewhat by missionaries, such as Sufi.
Following the death of Muhammad and the establishment of Caliphs in Muslim communities, the Muslims went on the offensive. They established their control over nearby cities and towns in areas that had renounced Islam after the death of Muhammad. This happened in the 630s (C.E.). In the next decade, the Islamic conquests reached, and seized, Byzantine Syria and Palestine and North Africa (including Egypt). The followed decade they destroyed the Sasanid dynasty and added Persia to their quickly expanding empire. During the 710s (C.E.), the Islamic conquests took control of northwestern India, northwest Africa, most of Iberian peninsula, and were in a threatening position to the Frankish kingdom of Gaul. Through these conquests, Islam was diffused, and basically enforced, over a vast portion of Afro-Eurasia.
Another way in which Islam was spread was through Islamic missionaries. Most of such missionaries were mystics known as Sufis. Sufis would lead devoted Islamic lives and their basic life goal was to strengthen their spiritual relationship with Allah. They served as effective missionaries because they would emphasize devotion above mastery of doctrine— which, simply put, was telling people that as long as they devotedly worshiped Allah, the ways in which they worshipped did not have to conform to the Quran.
Focus Question #2
What was the role of women in Islam, and to what extent did Muslim writings support it?
Islamic women, at first, were seen as equals to men before Allah, and were given rights that the majority of other patriarchal societies had denied them. The Quran, however, did not directly support this, and thus women were not, and are not, socially, politically, or economically equal.
At the beginning of Islam, Women had many opportunities. They could own land, divorce husbands by their own choice, and take part in business entrepreneurship. The last may have been allowed for because the first of Muhammad’s wives, Khadija, was a successful commercial business owner. Also, the Quran did outlaw female infanticide, and it stated that dowries, instead of being sent to husbands and male guardians, be sent directly to the bride.
However, the Quran, as well as the Sharia, reiterated male dominance in this already patriarchal society. Because Islamic holy law and the Quran established descent through the male line, they needed to ensure the legitimacy of heirs. Hence they subjected the social and sexual lives of women to the strict control of male guardians—whether that being a father, a brother, or a husband. This also allowed husbands to practice polygamy (there was a maximum of four wives in Islamic religion), while wives could only practice monogamy.
Over the centuries, the amount of freedom given to women by the Quran and the Sharia, have been increasingly limited by new interpretations of the two. Thus, women’s rights in Islam have not been progressing; rather, they have been regressing.
Focus Question #3
How did Islam unify the region culturally, politically and economically?
Islam unified the region culturally, politically, and economically, largely because the region in question became one large empire—the product of the Islamic conquests.
The Islamic conquests created an empire that extended from India all the way to portions of the Iberian Peninsula. This massive empire was interconnected through complex trade networks. The dar al-Islam also contained some of the largest trading centers of the time, such as Merv, Nishapu, Bukhara, and Samakand. The Islamic empire revived the Silk Roads network and extended their trade all the way east to China. These trade networks were possible largely for one reason, the road systems. Both Umayyad and Abbasid rulers maintained the road systems they inherited because they made for efficient and speedy travel throughout the vast Islamic empire. Rather that travel is by military forces, missionaries, merchants, or pilgrims, the road systems still made the trade networks possible.
Overland trade was conducted by camel caravans the majority of the time, while maritime trade was obviously conducted by boats. Camel caravans were preferred because camels could withstand the harsh tolls of desert travel, and they can also carry heavy loads. Maritime trade was also improved— the Islamic sailors borrowed the idea of a compass from the Chinese inventers and also the lateen sail (a triangular sail) that increased maneuverability from Southeast Asian inventers. To calculate latitude, they borrowed the astrolabe, an instrument invented from the Hellenistic Mediterranean. Through these trade systems the region was unified economically.
The region was unified politically and culturally through the religion of Islam. Islamic rulers were very involved in religion of the state as well. This is largely demonstrated by the establishment of caliphs, who led Muslim communities— politically, religiously, and military wise.
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