Reproductive Health

The third component of the GII is reproductive health. The effects of reproduction are significantly greater for females by nature. Poor reproductive health is a major contributor to gender inequality in many countries. The reproductive health dimension of the GII is based on two indicators: adolescent fertility rate and maternal mortality rate.

Adolescent Fertility Rate

The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19. The rate is 16 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19 in developed countries and 48 in developing countries. The teenage pregnancy rate is below 10 per 1,000 in most European countries, where most couples use some form of contraception. In sub-Saharan Africa, where gender inequality is high, contraceptive use is below 10 percent, and the teenage pregnancy rate is 110 per 1,000

Adolescent Fertility Rate, 2018

The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19.

The adolescent fertility rate in the United States (21 per 1,000 in 2017) is twice as high as in most European countries as well as Canada. The rate is especially high for African Americans and Hispanics. Researchers attribute the high rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States to lack of economic opportunities for many young women, especially African Americans and Hispanics.

Maternal Mortality Rate

The maternal mortality rate was defined in Chapter 2 as the number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 births. The ratio is 16 deaths of mothers per 100,000 live births in developed countries and 171 in developing countries. The highest rates (most deaths per births) are in sub-Saharan Africa (refer to Figure 2-33). The U.N. estimates that 150,000 women and 1.6 million children die each year between the onset of labor and 48 hours after birth.

The maternal mortality rate has declined worldwide by one-half over the past three decades, from 350 per 100,000 in 1990 to 216 in 2015. Dramatic improvements have been seen in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. The United States is one of only 13 countries where the rate has increased since 1990

Trend in Maternal Mortality Rate, 1990-2015

The maternal mortality rate is the number of deaths of mothers in childbirth per 100,000 live births.

Pause & Reflect 10.2.5

In summary, how close is the relationship between development and gender inequality?

The U.N. computes development measures such as GII for entire countries rather than for individual communities within countries. Here are results if a separate GII were calculated for each of the 50 U.S. states

Empowerment: Legislators. No U.S. state legislature has a majority who are women. However, states vary widely; 40 percent of legislators in Arizona and Vermont are women, compared to only 11 percent in Wyoming

Percent Women in State Legislatures

Employment: Female labor force participation. The variation in female labor force participation is less than with the other two GII variables. The rate varies from 50 percent in West Virginia to 67 percent in Alaska.

Female Labor Force Participation Rate By U.S. State

Reproductive health: Teenage birth rates. The rate of births among teenagers varies widely by U.S. state, from under 10 per 1,000 in New England to over 30 per 1,000 in the South (Figure 10-40).

Teenage Birth Rate By U.S. State