Geographic concepts help to understand the distribution and diffusion of popular culture. Popular culture diffuses rapidly around the world in the twenty-first century primarily through electronic media. Electronic media increase access to popular culture for people who embrace folk culture and at the same time increase awareness of folk culture for people who are able to participate in global-scale popular culture.
Key Issue 3: Why Is Access to Culture Unequal?
Electronic Diffusion of Culture The diffusion of popular culture is not uniform throughout the world. The principal obstacle to its diffusion is lack of access to electronic media.
Diffusion of TV: Mid-Twentieth Century The world’s most popular and important electronic media format is television (TV). Watching TV is now the most popular leisure activity in the world, with the average human watching 4.4 hours daily and the average American watching 5.1 hours daily. Popular culture is diffused faster and further than ever with the invention and diffusion of forms of electronic communication like television. Television allows images and messages about popular culture, such as professional sports, to spread instantaneously across the globe. Television ownership rates in developing countries climbing rapidly since the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Diffusion of the Internet: Late Twentieth Century The diffusion of the Internet has followed the pattern established by TV. Its diffusion has been an a much more rapid rate. As the Internet diffuses to other parts of the world, the share of Internet users in the United States shows a decline when compared with the increase in numbers of users throughout the world.
Diffusion of TV and the Internet Compared The Internet has diffused at a much more rapid pace than TV did. The United States has the highest number of televisions per 1,000, but with its spread throughout the world the U.S. has smaller percentage of the world’s televisions. The pattern was repeated for the diffusion of the Internet. Even though the United States has a high number of users, 886 per 1,000, its percentage of world users is only 7 percent in 2017 from 63 percent of the world’s users in 1995. Note that the data compare the users in one country to an aggregate number for all the countries in the world.
Social Media and Interconnectivity People in the United States have dominated the use of social media during the early years. Social networking websites like Facebook and Twitter still enjoy their greatest popularity in the United States, but are quickly diffusing to other countries. The possibility of other social media platforms gaining popularity outside the United States also exists.
Diffusion of Facebook Since the founding of Facebook by Harvard University students in 2004, it has diffused rapidly. Mirroring the early dominance of Internet in the United States, Facebook users in the United States outnumbered those in other countries during its early years. As of 2014, the United States and India claim more than 100 million Facebook users each, with developing countries such as Brazil, Mexico, and Indonesia behind. Facebook is not as popular in China and Russia, due to competing social media platforms and restrictions on Internet usage.
Diffusion of Instagram This social media platform’s diffusion pattern is similar to that of other social media platforms. The most frequently photographed country on Instagram is Japan and seven of the Instagram users with the largest number of followers in 2018 were Americans.
Diffusion of Twitter The United States was the leading source Tweets and Instagram messages in 2017. India is the second leading country in terms of the number of tweets. Seven of the ten Twitter posters with the largest number of followers were in the United States.
Challenges in Accessing Electronic Media Not every country enjoys the same open access to information and modern electronic communications (e.g. the Internet and cell phones) as the citizens of the United States do. Based on a Freedom on the Net survey of the level of Internet and digital media freedom in 65 countries, only 19 countries were categorized as “free,” 31 were classified as “partly free,” and 15 were “not free.” Three categories of restrictions on the free use of the Internet are recognized by Freedom on the Net: banned technology, blocked content, and violated user rights.
Banned Technology Governments can prevent electronic technology deemed unwanted by regulating the underlying technology platforms that are supported by the infrastructure in the country. Some governments do not permit the sale of certain models of phones, tablets, and computers. Devices that are permitted must be configured to exclude certain functionality. Some travelers between free countries, such as from the United States to Western Europe, discover that their devices fail to operate due to incompatible cellular infrastructure. China is an example of a country that aggressively monitors and restricts foreign applications, as evidenced by the relatively small fraction of Facebook and Twitter users living there.
Blocked Content Some websites and web content is censored or prevented altogether from being displayed on devices in a particular country. The leaders of some developing countries view American dominance of TV programming as a new method of cultural and economic imperialism. Social norms present in this programming may not match those of developing countries; many satellite and cable providers in these developing countries block programming containing such content. Three types of Internet content are routinely censored in select countries:
• Political content that expresses views in opposition to those of the current administration or that is related to human rights, freedom of expression, minority rights, and religious movements.
• Social content related to sexuality, gambling, and illegal drugs and alcohol, as well as other topics that may be socially sensitive or perceived as offensive.
• Security content related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements, and militant groups.
Violated User Rights Some citizens of countries that are not “free” digitally have devised ways of circumventing government restrictions on ownership of hardware, use of software, and viewing of online content. These governments have turned to physical attacks and imprisonment to intimidate their citizens into ceasing their Internet activities. Freedom on the Net has noted that women and the LGBTQ community have been targeted in several countries for their online activities. Iran, Syria, and China have been identified by Freedom on the Net as the worst-offending countries in using the oppressive actions. Russia and Turkey are identified as countries in which Internet freedom has declined in recent years.
Spatial Dimensions of Cyberattacks Social media has facilitated the interaction of people across distance. Cyberattacks target individual privacy, national and corporate security, and disseminate false information.
Distribution of Victims Most victims of cyberattacks are in a few countries with the percentages varying with the different types of attacks. Three types of attacks have occurred each with a distinct target and purpose.
• Malware, or malicious software, is used to cause intentional harm by taking control of another computer and stealing information.
• Ransomware, or cryptoviral extortion, is a malware intrusion that then encrypts the computer’s files and renders them inaccessible until a ransom is paid to decrypt them.
• Cyper espionage is the unauthorized deployment of a virus to observe or destroy data in computer systems, usually those of governments and large corporations.
Origin of Attacks The United States is both the country most affected by attacks on web applications, and the most frequent country of origin for those attacks.
Fake News & Alternative Facts Creators of fake news disseminate information they know is untrue and sensationalize the reports. Some politicians have used this term to refer to reputable news coverage that casts them in an unfavorable light. Alternative facts are incorrect statements that can be proven false but purposely presented in social media. Trolling is the practice of posting deliberate inflammatory messages in social media in order to provoke people or urge them to action.
Using Our Personal Data The free access to social media has a tradeoff—allowing advertisers and other third parties to access their demographic and personal data. The same personal data could be used to advertise products or to influence voter behavior.
4.3
Diaspora The scattering a of people from their homeland (especially the Jews from the Holy Land)
Alternative fact (or alt fact) A statement that can be proved to be false.
Cyber espionage The unauthorized and clandestine deployment of a virus to observe or destroy data in the computer systems of government agencies and large corporations.
Fake news A false report disseminated under the guise of an authentic news report, created to maliciously spread misinformation and mislead consumers of the content.
Malware (or malicious software) Hostile or intrusive software designed to cause intentional harm.
Ransomware (or cryptoviral extortion) A form of malware that encrypts the victim’s files, making them inaccessible, until a ransom is paid to decrypt them.
Trolling The practice of posting deliberately inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in social media in order to provoke quarrels or otherwise agitate people.
III Key Issue 3: Why is Access to Culture Unequal
A Electronic Diffusion of Culture
1 Diffusion of TV: Mid-Twentieth Century
a most popular leisure activity
b medium for the diffusion of popular culture
2 Diffusion of the Internet: Late Twentieth Century
a Diffusion of TV and the Internet Compared
B Social Media & Interconnectivity
1 Diffusion of Facebook
2 Diffusion of Instagram
3 Diffusion of Twitter
C Challenges in Accessing Electronic Media
1 Banned Technology
2 Blocked Content
3 Violated User Rights
D Spatial Dimensions of Cyberattacks
1 Distribution of Victims
a malware or malicious software—hostile or intrusive software designed to cause intentional harm
b ransomware or cryptoviral extortion—encrypts victim’s files, making them inaccessible, until a ransom is paid to decrypt them
c cyber espionage—unauthorized and clandestine deployment of a virus to observe or destroy data in the computer systems of government agencies and large corporations
d Origin of attacks
2 Fake News & Alternative Facts .
a fake news—false report disseminated under the guise of an authentic news report
b alternative fact—statement that can be proved to be false
c trolling—posting of deliberately inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in social media in order to provoke quarrels or agitate people
3 Using Our Personal Data
a Free services vs. disclosure of personal and demographic data