Evolution of States

The first states emerged in ancient times in Southwest Asia & North Africa. Until modern times, much of Earth’s land area remained unorganized territory.

Ancient States

The development of states in ancient times can be traced to a region of Southwest Asia known as the Fertile Crescent. The ancient Fertile Crescent formed an arc between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 8-8). Situated at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, the Fertile Crescent was a center for land and sea communications in ancient times.

Fertile Crescent

The crescent-shaped area of relatively fertile land was organized into a succession of empires starting several thousand years ago.

Figure 8-8 Full Alternative Text

The eastern end of the crescent, Mesopotamia, was centered in the valley formed by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in present-day Iraq. The Fertile Crescent then curved westward over the desert and turned southward to encompass the Mediterranean coast through present-day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. The Nile River valley of Egypt is sometimes regarded as an extension of the Fertile Crescent into North Africa.

Fertile Crescent Landscape

Euphrates River, Şanliurfa, Turkey.

The first states to evolve in Mesopotamia were known as city-states. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Singapore is an example of a present-day city-state. In ancient times, walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city, and outside the walls, the city controlled agricultural land to produce food for urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states.

Periodically, one city or tribe in Mesopotamia would gain military dominance over the others and form an empire. Mesopotamia was organized into a succession of empires by the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians.

Pause & Reflect 8.2.1

What is the importance of the Fertile Crescent in the development of religions, as discussed in Chapter 6? How might the development of ancient states and religions in the region be related?

Roman Empire to Medieval States

Political unity in the ancient world reached its height with the establishment of the Roman Empire, which controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia, from modern-day Spain to Iran and from Egypt to England. At its maximum extent, the empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. Massive walls helped the Roman army defend many of the empire’s frontiers.

Roman Empire 100 C.E.

At its height, the Roman Empire controlled much of Europe as well as Southwest Asia & North Africa.

Arena of NÎmes

The arena was built by the Romans in Nîmes, in Gaul (present-day France), in 70 C.E.

The Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century, after a series of attacks by people living on its frontiers and because of internal disputes. The European portion of the Roman Empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over large numbers of these European estates beginning around the year 1100. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of such modern European states as England, France, and Spain.

Europe, 1300

Much of Europe was fragmented into small estates controlled by nobles.

Europe, 1800

Much of Europe was organized into empires.