Section 6        Snacks

In most cultures, daily food intake is traditionally divided into three meals a day – breakfast, lunch and dinner. With increasing urbanisation, the practice of eating between meal times or ‘snacking’ has been increasing in all age groups (Kerr et al., 2008; Piernas and Popkin, 2010; Dunford and Popkin, 2018). “Snacks refer to foods and beverages consumed between regular meals” (Hess et al., 2016). Worldwide choice of snacks ranges from salty snacks, desserts, candy, sweetened beverages, soda, milk, fruits, fruit juices, chocolates, cakes, savoury pies, cereal bars and ice cream to fried/baked dough with meat/cheese/vegetable and fruit and grain-based foods. The dietary guidelines in some countries advise on limiting some of these high energy, high salt and nutrient-poor snacks. Others recommend choosing healthy snacks based on legumes, fruits, nuts and seeds, whereas some countries do not provide any recommendations on snacks (Hess et al., 2016).

According to Reardon et al (2021), the pattern of preparing and consuming snacks and drinks in Sub-Saharan Africa has undergone key shifts over the past five decades, moving from cooking and eating traditional snacks at home during festivals and special occasions to buying ultra processed packaged snacks and sugar-sweetened beverages daily. Although there is little research on snacks per se in The Gambia, the reported increase in consumption of processed foods high in refined grains, sugar, and oil indicates that this shift in snacking might be happening in urban areas (Carr et al., 2024; Ali et al., 2022). Ali et al. (2022) reported that 77.5% of individuals consumed more than the upper limit of sugar per day (31 g) recommended by EAT-Lancet guidelines, implying that it is an affordable ingredient in The Gambia. This is further confirmed by the reported supply of sugar in The Gambia (82 g/person/day) in 2017, which was much higher than the West African and global average (40 g/person/day and 72 g/person/day, respectively) (Ali et al., 2023). In urban settings, home diet was also high in fats, oils, sugar and salt (Janha et al., 2021).

A healthy start in life is paramount for a child’s development and reduction of the risk of non-communicable diseases in adulthood. Global organisations recommend exclusive breastfeeding of infants for six months from birth followed by weaning on healthy foods restricting the intake of sugar, salt, trans fat, sugar-sweetened beverages and non-sugar sweeteners until the age of two years (WHO, 2015; WHO, 2023). Taboos and customs in some regions of The Gambia restricts giving colostrum to infants and instead provides sugary water or diluted milk to newborns (Perez and Garcia, 2013). It is important to address these practices with educational interventions alongside restricting access to sugary snacks and beverages in institutions such as schools (Bhutta et al., 2017; Chesson et al., 2023). A study in rural Gambia reported that despite knowing the effect of salt on blood pressure and sugar on diabetes and dental health, adolescents were accessing fruit flavoured sugary drinks and deep-fried snacks from street vendors near school premises (Janha et al., 2021). Similarly, in the urban Region One of The Gambia, consumption of juices with added sugar, fried food, biscuits and cakes was associated with overweight and obesity in adolescents (Tunkara-Bah et al., 2021). Daily consumption of fried foods and at least one bottle of sugar sweetened juice was also reported by 25% of these participants. High consumption of carbonated sugary drinks was associated with festivals and special ceremonies whilst mangoes and cashews were consumed regularly only when available in season (Janha et al., 2021).

6.1 Snacks in The Gambian diet

• In The Gambia, it is common practice to consume added sugar juices such as Baobab juice, Kabba juice, Ginger juice and Wonjo juice (Hibiscus drink).

• Fruit-flavoured drinks and carbonated sugary drinks are also available from street vendors and supermarkets

• Savoury snacks include Akara (bean fritters), Afra (grilled meat) and Tapalapa bread filled with sauces, akara, beans, meat, jam or butter

• Packaged snacks such as biscuits, sweets and cakes are also available in supermarkets

6.2 Recommendations

• Promote consumption of fruit as snacks – in fresh or dried form

• Encourage lightly salted or unsalted roasted nuts and seeds as healthy snacks – peanuts, cashew nuts, sesame seeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds

• Avoid consumption of added sugar drinks and carbonated beverages

• Avoid deep-fried snacks and opt for grilling or shallow frying to reduce excess oil consumption

• Instead of fried plantain and potato crisps, opt for baked versions

• Mix yoghurt and fresh fruit, such as mango, to create healthy snacks

• Millet flakes or popped millet can be used to make snacks

• Cooked chickpeas can be roasted with spices to make a nutritious snack 

• Washed and cleaned vegetables such as carrots, cucumber and peppers can also be used as healthy snacks

• Fresh coconut water is a refreshing drink which can be consumed without added sugars 

Table 6. Traffic Light Rating: Snacks in The Gambia

Sources: EAT-Lancet commission https://eatforum.org/lancet-commission/healthcare-professionals/; Willet et al., 2019

https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/food-facts-portion-sizes.html

Traffic Light Key:

• Green foods are healthier choices, providing good nutrients without excess fat, sugar, or calories.

• Yellow foods are generally nutritious but may contain higher amounts of sugar or refined ingredients,

• Red foods that are high in salt, sugar, fats and can be consumed only occasionally. 

Splendid snacks

• Fresh fruits

• Unsalted nuts and seeds mixed with dried mango, coconut, banana etc

• Consumption of fruits and vegetables is linked to reduced risk of NCDs

• Nuts and seeds are proven to improve health outcomes in those without allergies

References

• ‌Ali, Z., Scheelbeek, P.F.D., Felix, J., Jallow, B., Palazzo, A., Segnon, A.C., Havlík, P., Prentice, A.M. and Green, R. (2022). Adherence to EAT-Lancet dietary recommendations for health and sustainability in the Gambia. Environmental Research Letters, p.104043. doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac9326.

• Ali, Z., Scheelbeek, P.F.D., Dalzell, S., Hadida, G., Segnon, A.C., M’boob, S., Prentice, A.M. and Green, R. (2023). Socio-economic and food system drivers of nutrition and health transitions in The Gambia from 1990 to 2017. Global Food Security, [online] 37, p.100695. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2023.100695.

• Bhutta, Z. A., Lassi, Z. S., Bergeron, G., Koletzko, B., Salam, R., Diaz, A., McLean, M., Black, R. E., De-Regil, L. M., Christian, P., Prentice, A. M., Klein, J. D., Keenan, W. and Hanson, M. (2017). Delivering an action agenda for nutrition interventions addressing adolescent girls and young women: priorities for implementation and research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1393(1), pp. 61-71. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13352. 

• Carr, T.W., Addo, F., Palazzo, A., Havlik, P., Pérez-Guzmán, K., Ali, Z., Green, R., Hadida, G., Segnon, A.C., Zougmoré, R. and Scheelbeek, P. (2024) ‘Addressing future food demand in The Gambia: Can increased crop productivity and climate change adaptation close the supply–demand gap?’, Food Security. doi: doi.org/10.1007/s12571-024-01444-1.

• Chesson, R. Y. T., Uyamadu, E. A. and Sridhar, M. K. C. (2023). Food taboos among pregnant women in the community of Mayork, the Gambia. Research Journal of Food Science and Quality Control, 9, pp. 56-72. DOI: 10.56201/rjfsqc

• Dunford, E. K. and Popkin, B. M. (2018). 37-year snacking trends for US children 1977-2014. Pediatric Obesity, 13(4), pp. 247-255. doi: 10.1111/ijpo.12220.

• Hess, J. M., Jonnalagadda, S. S. and Slavin, J. L. (2016). What Is a Snack, Why Do We Snack, and How Can We Choose Better Snacks? A Review of the Definitions of Snacking, Motivations to Snack, Contributions to Dietary Intake, and Recommendations for Improvement. Advances in Nutrition, 7(3), pp. 466-75. doi: 10.3945/an.115.009571. 

• Janha, R. E., Hardy-Johnson, P., Kehoe, S. H., et al. (2021) Exploring influences on adolescent diet and physical activity in rural Gambia, West Africa: food insecurity, culture and the natural environment. Public Health Nutrition, 24(16), pp. 5277-5287. doi:10.1017/S1368980020002669

• Kerr, M. A., Rennie, K. L., McCaffrey, T. A., Wallace, J. M. W., Hannon-Fletcher, M. P. and Livingstone, M. B. E. (2008). Snacking patterns among adolescents: a comparison of type, frequency and portion size between Britain in 1997 and Northern Ireland in 2005. British Journal of Nutrition, 101(1), pp. 122-131. doi:10.1017/S0007114508994769.

• Perez, G. M. and Garcia, A. P. (2013) ‘Nutritional taboos among the Fullas in the upper river region, The Gambia’, Journal of Anthropology, 2013, 873612.

• Piernas, C. and Popkin, B. M. (2010). Snacking increased among U.S. adults between 1977 and 2006. Journal of Nutrition, 140, pp. 325-32. doi: 10.3945/jn.109.112763. 

• Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L. S. O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R., Dolislager, M., Sauer, C., Dhar, R., Vargas, C., Lartey, A., Raza, A. and Popkin, B. M. (2021). The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition, Global Food Security, 28, 100466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466.

• Tunkara-Bah, H., Badjan, H.J. & Senghore, T. (2021) ‘Dietary factors associated with being overweight and obese among school-going adolescents in Region One, The Gambia’, Heliyon, 7(6), e06486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06486.

• WHO. (2015). Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Geneva: World Health Organization.

• WHO (2023). WHO Guideline for complementary feeding of infants and young children 6-23 months of age. Geneva: World Health Organization. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.