The Republic of South Africa
In 1990, Nelson Mandela, the popular South African black leader, emerged from prison. He had spent 27 years behind bars for opposing the racial policies of South Africa’s white rulers. Raising his right fist, Mandela proclaimed, “Amandla! Amandla! I-Adrika mayibuye!” (“Power! Power! Africa is ours!”)
Millions of people in South Africa and around the world celebrated the release of Nelson Mandela. His return to freedom symbolized the hope that South Africa was moving towards majority rule. And, remarkably, in South Africa’s first democratic election, Mandela was elected President of the nation that had once considered him to be its most wanted fugitive. How did South Africa change so dramatically in less than a century?
A Policy of Forced Segregation
In 1910, Britain granted South Africa self-rule. Since then, a small minority had governed the nation. Whites make up about 13 percent of South Africa’s population. The majority of South Africans--77 percent--are black. Other groups include people of mixed racial background (7 percent) and the Asians (3 percent).
Origins of apartheid. In 1948, the Nationalist party came to power in South Africa. It drew support from conservative white farmers. Many of them were descended from Dutch settlers who held strong views on white superiority. South Africa was already segregated along racial lines, and the Nationalists strengthened the divisions. They set up the strict legal system of apartheid (uh pahrt´ hayt), or rigid separation of races.
Under apartheid, the government classified all South African as white, black, “coloured” (people of mixed race), or Asian. It then passed laws to keep races separate. Nonwhites could not vote. They were also restricted as to where they could live and work.
The government assigned black ethnic groups, such as the Zulus and Xhosas, to live in a number of Bantustans, or homelands. Supporters of apartheid claimed that separation allowed each group to develop its own culture. The homelands, however, were located in dry, infertile areas. Four-fifths of South Africa, including its rich mineral resources and fertile farmlands, remained in white hands.
Strict laws. Because South Africa needed black workers, the government allowed some blacks to live outside the homelands. To control their movements, it enacted pass laws. The pass laws required black South Africans living in a town or city to carry a passbook. The passbook included a record of where they could travel or work, their tax payments, and a record of any criminal convictions. It had to be carried at all times and produced upon demand.
Pass laws divided families. A man might have a job in town, while his wife had to remain in the homeland. One South African newspaper reported how Mathilda Chikuye was fined $25 for letting her husband live with her. She had permission to be in town, but he did not.
Apartheid enforced a system of inequality. Blacks were forbidden to ride on “white” buses, swim at “white” beaches, or eat at “white” restaurants. Black schools received much less money and other support that white schools. As a result, literacy remained low among black students, and many dropped out of school. Only a very few black South African students received higher education. And, as mentioned previously, only whites had the right to vote in national elections.
Struggle Against Apartheid
From the start, blacks, and some other South Africans opposed apartheid. Leaders such as Albert J. Luthuli (luh too´ lee) urged nonviolent resistance. Luthuli won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1960. In his acceptance speech he stated,
[Apartheid] is a museum-piece in our time, a hangover from the dark ages… a relic of an age that everywhere else is dead or dying… These ideas survived in South Africa because those who sponsor them profit from them.
Later, another black South African leader, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, won the same prize. Like Luthuli, Tutu strongly opposed apartheid but rejected violence.
The South African police and government forces used violence, however. In 1960, protesters staged a peaceful demonstration in Sharpeville, a township near Johannesburg. The police opened fired, killing more than 60 people. The “Sharpeville massacre” aroused anger worldwide. As protests continued, the government banned opposition groups, such as the African National Congress (ANC). Black leaders, including Nelson Mandela, went into hiding. Mandela was captured and sentenced to life in prison in 1964.
Women and students. Many South Africans women joined the struggle against apartheid. At one rally, more than 20,000 women marched through South Africa’s capital city Pretoria to demonstrate against the pass laws. During the years of struggle, many women lost their lives or went to prison for their beliefs.
In 1976, students in Soweto (suh way´ toh), a black township located outside Johannesburg, protested a new law requiring the use of Afrikaans in all public schools. Afrikaans is the language of white South Africans who are descended from Dutch settlers. When the government responded with violence, the protest spread.
Pressure grows. While South Africans demanded change from within, international pressure grew. From its founding, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) had worked to end Apartheid. It urged members to boycott South Africa. Other groups also pressed for change in South Africa. The United Nations placed an arms embargo on South Africa. International sports organization such as the Olympic Committee barred South African athletes from competition.
During the 1980s, many nations, including the United States, imposed economic sanctions. This meant that they cut off trade in many items and ended financial dealings with South African businesses.
Step Towards Change
Protest and economic sanctions had an effect. The sanction slowed the South African economy, causing white business leaders to press the government for change. The ending of the Cold War also played a part. A growing number of white South Africans came to feel that apartheid must end.
In the mid-1980, the South African government began to make changes. It repealed the hated pass laws and opened some segregated facilities to all South Africans. In 1989, South Africa’s President, F.W. de Klerk, lifted the ban on the ANC and other groups opposed to apartheid. The release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 signaled a willingness to hold talks with black leaders.
The de Klerk government abandoned the policy of black homelands. Then, in 1991, it repealed the law that required all South Africans to be classified by race. “One cannot build security on injustice,” de Klerk said, admitting the moral argument against apartheid.
The steps toward majority rule continued. In a history-making referendum in 1992, white voters in South Africa overwhelmingly agreed to support reform that would lead to a new constitution granting full citizenship to blacks.
South Africa’s Future
As President de Klerk said following the referendum vote, “Nothing is going to be easy, but we have chosen our direction.” Huge obstacles remained to a peaceful transition from minority to majority rule.
Bitter divisions still separated South Africans. A small but determined group of whites, particularly in rural areas, resisted the move towards black majority rule. Militant black groups who did not participate in negotiations were ready to offer strong opposition to any agreements.
The strong affirmative vote won by white voters raised expectations that would be difficult to fulfill. Black leaders, such as Mandela, expected that the pace of change towards black majority rule would increase. Many young blacks, who have suffered economic hardship, saw in the vote a chance for economic benefits.
For some, change came too fast. For many others who have endured an unjust system for decades, it is too slow. President de Klerk, having sought a mandate to grant legitimacy to his actions, hoped to remain in power to guide South Africa through a period of transition that would benefit the majority and protect the minority.
Reading Guide
Directions. Please answer the following questions in COMPLETE SENTENCES on a separate sheet of paper. Include the question in your response.
1. What ethnic groups make up South Africa, and what are the percentages of each?
2. What racial views were held by the Nationalist Party?
3. What is apartheid?
4. What is a bantustan?
5. What were four ways that the system of apartheid promoted social inequality?
6. What was the "Sharpeville massacre?" What was the effect on the A.N.C.?
7. What led to the Soweto Uprising of 1976?
8. What pressures were put in the government of South Africa to end apartheid from outside of the country (United Nations, Olympic Committee, United States)?
9. What led to the end of apartheid in South Africa?
10. Identify the following people and provide significant information on each: a) Nelson Mandela, b) Albert Luthuli, c) Desmond Tutu, d) F.W. de Klerk.
TIMELINE - On your paper, make a timeline using the dates below. For each date you should indicate what happened in South Africa at that time.
1910, 1948, 1960, 1964, 1976, 1980s, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992