Reading proficiency was measured in terms of (a) an independent test of reading proficiency and (b) GCSE exam performance in the reading test. 

Independent Test of Reading Proficiency

We asked French learners to compete the reading section from the DELF junior/scolaire (A2; see example 1 here) and Spanish learners compete the reading section from the DELE (A2; see here). 

GCSE Exam Performance

In the August following data collection, we asked learners to send us a photo of their GCSE results slip, which included their marks for the reading test. These marks were based on their performance in one of the following exam papers. 

French

AQA 2022 Foundation

Higher

2023 Foundation

Higher

Edexcel 2022 Foundation

Higher

2023 Foundation

Higher

Spanish

AQA 2023 Foundation

Higher

Edexcel 2023 Foundation

Higher