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Oxytocin Basics
Oxytocin Basics
Osilla, E. V., Patel, P., & Sharma, S. (2025, February 15). Oxytocin. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507848/
Bakos, J., Srancikova, A., Havranek, T., & Bacova, Z. (2018). Molecular mechanisms of oxytocin signaling at the synaptic connection. Neural Plasticity, 2018, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4864107
Quintana, D. S., Rokicki, J., Van Der Meer, D., Alnæs, D., Kaufmann, T., Córdova-Palomera, A., Dieset, I., Andreassen, O. A., & Westlye, L. T. (2019). Oxytocin pathway gene networks in the human brain. Nature Communications, 10(1), 668. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08503-8
Hasan, R. (2024). The multifaceted role of oxytocinergic system and OXTR gene. Global Medical Genetics, 11(1), 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0044-1779039
Magon, N., & Kalra, S. (2011). The orgasmic history of oxytocin: Love, lust, and labor. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 15(7), 156. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.84851
Cuesta-Marti, Cristina & Uhlig, Friederike & Muguerza, Begoña & Hyland, Niall & Clarke, Gerard & Schellekens, Harriët. (2023). Microbes, oxytocin and stress: Converging players regulating eating behavior. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 35. 10.1111/jne.13243.
⬇️ Summary of Oxytocin genetics:
Location on chromosome 20, right next to the vasopressin (AVP) gene.
Oxytocin gets translated as pre-prooxytocin in the hypothalamus
4. Pre-prooxytocin gets cleaved multiple times to yield oxytocin and neurphysin I (a carrier peptide)
5. Oxytocin is stored in vesicles in the posterior pituitary
6. Oxytocin gets released into circulation by the posterior pituitary
Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR)
Rokicki, J., Kaufmann, T., De Lange, A. G., Van Der Meer, D., Bahrami, S., Sartorius, A. M., Haukvik, U. K., Steen, N. E., Schwarz, E., Stein, D. J., Nærland, T., Andreassen, O. A., Westlye, L. T., & Quintana, D. S. (2022). Oxytocin receptor expression patterns in the human brain across development. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(8), 1550–1560. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01305-5
Evolution of Oxytocin
⬆️ Video explanation of the evolution of both oxytocin and vasopressin.
Theofanopoulou, C., Gedman, G., Cahill, J. A., Boeckx, C., & Jarvis, E. D. (2021). Universal nomenclature for oxytocin–vasotocin ligand and receptor families. Nature, 592(7856), 747–755. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03040-7
⬇️ Evolution of oxytocin (OT) and vasotocin/vasopressin (VT) along with their receptors. Note that oxytocin arises after the split between jawless vertebrates, like lampreys, and jawed vertebrates, like sharks.
Gwee, P., Tay, B., Brenner, S., & Venkatesh, B. (2009). Characterization of the neurohypophysial hormone gene loci in elephant shark and the Japanese lamprey: origin of the vertebrate neurohypophysial hormone genes. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 9(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-9-47
⬅️ How oxytocin and vasopressin are arranged on the chromosome. When vasotocin was duplicated aroudn the time jawed vertebrates split off from jawless vertebrates. In elephant sharks, an early jawed vertebrate, the vasotocin copy evolved into oxytocin. The genes face the same directions.
In humans, vasotocin became vasopressin, and the copy became oxytocin. The genes face in opposite directions.
Theofanopoulou, C. (2021). Reconstructing the evolutionary history of the oxytocin and vasotocin receptor gene family: Insights on whole genome duplication scenarios. Developmental Biology, 479, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.07.012
Daza, D. O., Bergqvist, C. A., & Larhammar, D. (2022). The evolution of oxytocin and vasotocin receptor genes in jawed vertebrates: a clear case for gene duplications through ancestral Whole-Genome duplications. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 12, 792644. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.792644
Kochman, K. (2013). Neurohormones: oxytocin, vasopressin and related peptides – structure, genes, receptors, and evolution. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences, 22, 283–294. https://www.jafs.com.pl/pdf-65915-5444?filename=Neurohormones--oxytocin--.pdf
Sartorius, A. M., Rokicki, J., Birkeland, S., Bettella, F., Barth, C., De Lange, A. G., Haram, M., Shadrin, A., Winterton, A., Steen, N. E., Schwarz, E., Stein, D. J., Andreassen, O. A., Van Der Meer, D., Westlye, L. T., Theofanopoulou, C., & Quintana, D. S. (2024). An evolutionary timeline of the oxytocin signaling pathway. Communications Biology, 7(1), 471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06094-9
Oxytocin and Birth
Oxytocin and Birth
Labor and Delivery
Walter, M. H., Abele, H., & Plappert, C. F. (2021). The role of oxytocin and the effect of stress during childbirth: neurobiological basics and implications for mother and child. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 12, 742236. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2021.742236
Uvnäs-Moberg, K. (2023). The physiology and pharmacology of oxytocin in labor and in the peripartum period. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 230(3), S740–S758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2023.04.011
Breastfeeding
WLi, E., Yuan, Y., Sun, H., Patel, K., Zhang, N., Nagesh, S., Aristizabal-Henao, J. J., Kiebish, M., Jacobs, C., Bridges, D., Gregg, B., & Rosen, E. D. (2026). Oxytocin signaling in adipocytes is required for normal milk fat production. Cell Metabolism, 38(6), 1141-1153.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2026.03.013
World Health Organization. (2009). The physiological basis of breastfeeding. Infant and Young Child Feeding - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK148970/
Maternal Behavior
Teruyama, R., & Govar, A. A. (2024). Role of sexually dimorphic oxytocin receptor-expressing neurons in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus on maternal behavior. Peptides, 180, 171283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171283
Mitre, M., Kranz, T. M., Marlin, B. J., Schiavo, J. K., Erdjument-Bromage, H., Zhang, X., Minder, J., Neubert, T. A., Hackett, T. A., Chao, M. V., & Froemke, R. C. (2017). Sex-Specific differences in oxytocin receptor expression and function for parental behavior. Gender and the Genome, 1(4), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1089/gg.2017.0017
Scatliffe, N., Casavant, S., Vittner, D., & Cong, X. (2019). Oxytocin and early parent-infant interactions: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 6(4), 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2019.09.009
Body Weight and Fat Metabolism
Body Weight and Fat Metabolism
Appetite Regulation
Lawson, E. A. (2017). The effects of oxytocin on eating behaviour and metabolism in humans. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 13(12), 700–709. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2017.115
Sohn, J. (2015). Network of hypothalamic neurons that control appetite. BMB Reports, 48(4), 229–233. https://doi.org/10.5483/bmbrep.2015.48.4.272
Kerem, L., & Lawson, E. A. (2021). The effects of oxytocin on appetite regulation, food intake and metabolism in humans. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(14), 7737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147737
Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)
⬆️ This video explains genomic imprinting, the mechanism that causes Prader-Willi Syndrome.
Rice, L. J., Agu, J., Carter, C. S., Harris, J. C., Nazarloo, H. P., Naanai, H., & Einfeld, S. L. (2023). The relationship between endogenous oxytocin and vasopressin levels and the Prader-Willi syndrome behaviour phenotype. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14, 1183525. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1183525
Heseding, H. M., Jahn, K., Eberlein, C. K., Wieting, J., Maier, H. B., Proskynitopoulos, P. J., Glahn, A., Bleich, S., Frieling, H., & Deest, M. (2022). Distinct promoter regions of the oxytocin receptor gene are hypomethylated in Prader-Willi syndrome and in Prader-Willi syndrome associated psychosis. Translational Psychiatry, 12(1), 246. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02014-9
Sohn, J. (2015). Network of hypothalamic neurons that control appetite. BMB Reports, 48(4), 229–233. https://doi.org/10.5483/bmbrep.2015.48.4.272
Correa‐da‐Silva, F., Fliers, E., Swaab, D. F., & Yi, C. (2021). Hypothalamic neuropeptides and neurocircuitries in Prader Willi syndrome. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 33(7), e12994. https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12994
Lukoshe, A., Van Dijk, S. E., Van Den Bosch, G. E., Van Der Lugt, A., White, T., & Hokken-Koelega, A. C. (2017). Altered functional resting-state hypothalamic connectivity and abnormal pituitary morphology in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 9(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-017-9188-7
Kocher, M. A., Huang, F. W., Le, E., & Good, D. J. (2021). SNORD116 post-transcriptionally increases NHLH2 mRNA stability: Implications for Human Prader-Willi Syndrome. Human Molecular Genetics, 30(12), 1101–1110. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddab103
Brown, S. S. G., Manning, K. E., Fletcher, P., & Holland, A. (2022). In vivo neuroimaging evidence of hypothalamic alteration in Prader–Willi syndrome. Brain Communications, 4(5), fcac229. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcac229
Wu, N., Yu, H., & Xu, M. (2022). Alteration of brain nuclei in obese children with and without Prader-Willi syndrome. Frontiers in Neuroinformatics, 16, 1032636. https://doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2022.1032636
Blanco-Hinojo, L., Pujol, J., Esteba-Castillo, S., Martínez-Vilavella, G., Giménez-Palop, O., Gabau, E., Casamitjana, L., Deus, J., Novell, R., & Caixàs, A. (2019). Lack of response to disgusting food in the hypothalamus and related structures in Prader Willi syndrome. NeuroImage Clinical, 21, 101662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101662
The role of SNORD116 in the neuroendocrine phenotypes of Prader-Willi syndrome. (n.d.). https://www.fpwr.org/fpwr-funded-projects/the-role-of-snord116-in-the-neuroendocrine-phenotypes-of-prader-willi-syndrome
Oxytocin, Bonding, and Emotions
Oxytocin, Bonding, and Emotions
Social Cognition
Kirsch, P., Esslinger, C., Chen, Q., Mier, D., Lis, S., Siddhanti, S., Gruppe, H., Mattay, V. S., Gallhofer, B., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2005). Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 25(49), 11489–11493. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.3984-05.2005
Hurlemann, R., Patin, A., Onur, O. A., Cohen, M. X., Baumgartner, T., Metzler, S., Dziobek, I., Gallinat, J., Wagner, M., Maier, W., & Kendrick, K. M. (2010). Oxytocin enhances Amygdala-Dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(14), 4999–5007. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.5538-09.2010
Geng, Y., Zhao, W., Zhou, F., Ma, X., Yao, S., Becker, B., & Kendrick, K. M. (2018). Oxytocin facilitates empathic- and self-embarrassment ratings by attenuating amygdala and anterior insula responses. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 9, 572. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00572
Kranz, F., & Ishai, A. (2006). Face perception is modulated by sexual preference. Current Biology, 16(1), 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2005.10.070
Fineberg, S. K., & Ross, D. A. (2016). Oxytocin and the social brain. Biological Psychiatry, 81(3), e19–e21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.11.004
Montag, C., Schöner, J., Speck, L. G., Just, S., Stuke, F., Rentzsch, J., Gallinat, J., & Majić, T. (2020). Peripheral oxytocin is inversely correlated with cognitive, but not emotional empathy in schizophrenia. PLoS ONE, 15(4), e0231257. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231257
Xin, F., Zhou, X., Dong, D., Zhao, Z., Yang, X., Wang, Q., Gu, Y., Kendrick, K. M., Chen, A., & Becker, B. (2020). Oxytocin Differentially Modulates Amygdala Responses during Top‐Down and Bottom‐Up Aversive Anticipation. Advanced Science, 7(16), 2001077. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202001077
Thienel, M., Heinrichs, M., Fischer, S., Ott, V., Born, J., & Hallschmid, M. (2013). Oxytocin’s impact on social face processing is stronger in homosexual than heterosexual men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 39, 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.09.013
Social Bonding
Algoe, S. B., Kurtz, L. E., & Grewen, K. (2017). Oxytocin and social bonds: The role of oxytocin in perceptions of romantic partners’ bonding behavior. Psychological Science, 28(12), 1763–1772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617716922
Schneiderman, I., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Leckman, J. F., & Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin during the initial stages of romantic attachment: Relations to couples’ interactive reciprocity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(8), 1277–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.021
Bosch, O. J., & Young, L. J. (2017). Oxytocin and social relationships: From attachment to bond disruption. In Current topics in behavioral neurosciences (Vol. 35, pp. 97–117). https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2017_10
Birmingham, Wendy C.; Holt-Lunstad, Julianne; and Light, Kathleen C., "Relationship quality and oxytocin: Influence of stable and modifiable aspects of relationships" (2014). Faculty Publications. 6032. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/6032
Blumenthal, S. A., & Young, L. J. (2023). The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives. Biology, 12(6), 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12060844
Sexual Behavior
Cera, N., Vargas-Cáceres, S., Oliveira, C., Monteiro, J., Branco, D., Pignatelli, D., & Rebelo, S. (2021). How Relevant is the Systemic Oxytocin Concentration for Human Sexual Behavior? A Systematic Review. Sexual Medicine, 9(4), 100370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2021.100370
Pfaus, J. G. (2025). Orgasms, sexual pleasure, and opioid reward mechanisms. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 13(3), 381–393. https://doi.org/10.1093/sxmrev/qeaf023
Levin, R. J. (2017). The oxytocin released by the human female orgasm boosts sperm transport to enhance fertility- a new review of an outdated zombie concept. www.jscimedcentral.com. https://doi.org/10.47739/2333-7079/1096
Behnia, B., Heinrichs, M., Bergmann, W., Jung, S., Germann, J., Schedlowski, M., Hartmann, U., & Kruger, T. H. (2014). Differential effects of intranasal oxytocin on sexual experiences and partner interactions in couples. Hormones and Behavior, 65(3), 308–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.01.009
Martin, R. D., PhD. (2019, May 31). Female orgasms may benefit conception by boosting sperm transport. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/how-we-do-it/201905/orgasms-oxytocin-oviducts
Melis, M. R., & Argiolas, A. (2021). Oxytocin, erectile function and sexual behavior: last discoveries and possible advances. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(19), 10376. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910376
Sex Differences
Lynn, S. K., Hoge, E. A., Fischer, L. E., Barrett, L. F., & Simon, N. M. (2014). Gender differences in oxytocin-associated disruption of decision bias during emotion perception. Psychiatry Research, 219(1), 198–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.04.031
Preckel, K., Scheele, D., Kendrick, K. M., Maier, W., & Hurlemann, R. (2014). Oxytocin facilitates social approach behavior in women. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 191. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00191
Procyshyn, T. L., Dupertuys, J., & Bartz, J. A. (2024). Neuroimaging and behavioral evidence of sex-specific effects of oxytocin on human sociality. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 28(10), 948–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2024.06.010
Gao, S., Becker, B., Luo, L., Geng, Y., Zhao, W., Yin, Y., Hu, J., Gao, Z., Gong, Q., Hurlemann, R., Yao, D., & Kendrick, K. M. (2016). Oxytocin, the peptide that bonds the sexes also divides them. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(27), 7650–7654. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602620113
Lu, Q., Lai, J., Du, Y., Huang, T., Prukpitikul, P., Xu, Y., & Hu, S. (2019). Sexual dimorphism of oxytocin and vasopressin in social cognition and behavior. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 12, 337–349. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s192951
Melis, M. R., & Argiolas, A. (2021). Oxytocin, erectile function and sexual behavior: last discoveries and possible advances. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(19), 10376. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910376
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