Embedded Files
History
History
This review presents the development history of antidepressants in chronological order. Much of the info about the specific drugs I discussed came from this paper.
Hillhouse, T. M., & Porter, J. H. (2015). A brief history of the development of antidepressant drugs: From monoamines to glutamate. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038550
Monoamine Hypothesis Development
⬅️ These data demonstrate the incidence of depression among usesrs of reserpine, an antihypertensive that was found to cause depression.
Lemiieux, G., Davignon, A., Genest, J., Clinical Research Department, Hôtel-Dieu Hospital, Montreal, Department of National Health and Welfare, Ottawa, Ministry of Health of Quebec (Federal-Provincial Plan), Ciba Company, Montreal, National Research Council 1954-1955, Dr. Walter Murphy, Ciba Co., Montreal (Serpasil), Mr. A. Garstone, Riker Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. (Serpiloid and Rauwiloid), & Mr. J. H. Comte, E. R. Squibb & Sons of Canada Ltd. (Raudoxin and Rau-Sed). (1956). RAUWOLFIA THERAPY DEPRESSIVE STATES DURING RAUWOLFIA THERAPY FOR ARTERIAL HYPERTENSION: a REPORT OF 30 CASES. Canadian Medical Association Journal. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC1823144/pdf/canmedaj00730-0023.pdf
⬅️ Another study confirmed reserpine's role in depression, and provided me with some stats on sex differences.
Quetsch, R. M., Achor, R. W. P., Litin, E. M., & Faucett, R. L. (1959). Depressive Reactions in Hypertensive Patients: A Comparison of Those Treated with Rauwolfia and Those Receiving No Specific Antihypertensive Treatment. In Circulation: Vol. XIX (p. 366) [Journal-article]. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/01.CIR.19.3.366
PubChem. (n.d.). Reserpine. PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Reserpine#section=Structures
Hirschfeld, R. M. A. (2000). History and evolution of the Monoamine hypothesis of Depression. In J Clin Psychiatry (Vols. 61–61, Issue suppl 6, pp. 4–6). https://www.psychiatrist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/13894_history-evolution-monoamine-hypothesis-depression.pdf
Barchas, J. D., & Altemus, M. (1999). Monoamine hypotheses of mood disorders. Basic Neurochemistry - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28257/
Major Depressive Disorder
Major Depressive Disorder
⬅️ MDD is a disorder that most commonly calls for antidepressants. While all these factors contribute to its etiology, I focused on the monoamine hypothesis and the structural/functional brain changes.
Bains, N., & Abdijadid, S. (2023, April 10). Major depressive disorder. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/
Major Depression. (n.d.). National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/major-depression
DSM-5 Criteria for Major Depressive Disorder. (n.d.). MDCalc. https://www.mdcalc.com/calc/10195/dsm-5-criteria-major-depressive-disorder
World Health Organization: WHO & World Health Organization: WHO. (2023, March 31). Depressive disorder (depression). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Depressive Mechanisms
Depressive Mechanisms
Marek, G. J., Carpenter, L. L., McDougle, C. J., & Price, L. H. (2002). Synergistic action of 5-HT2A antagonists and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(2), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300057
Celada, P., Puig, M. V., Amargós-Bosch, M., Adell, A., & Artigas, F. (2004, July 1). The therapeutic role of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in depression. PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC446220/
Bhagwagar, Z., Hinz, R., Taylor, M., Fancy, S., Cowen, P., & Grasby, P. (2006). Increased 5-HT2AReceptor binding in euthymic, Medication-Free patients Recovered from depression: A positron emission study with [11C]MDL 100,907. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(9), 1580–1587. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.9.1580
Der-Avakian, A., & Markou, A. (2012). The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits. Trends in Neurosciences, 35(1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2011.11.005
⬅️ Distribution, function, and molecular mechanisms of the 5-HT2A receptor.
Guiard, B. P., & Di Giovanni, G. (2015). Central serotonin-2A (5-HT2A) receptor dysfunction in depression and epilepsy: the missing link? Frontiers in Pharmacology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2015.00046
Alex, K., & Pehek, E. (2007). Pharmacologic mechanisms of serotonergic regulation of dopamine neurotransmission. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 113(2), 296–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.08.004
⬅️ Inhibitory mechanisms imposed on serotonergic neurotransmission.
Altieri, S. C., Garcia-Garcia, A. L., Leonardo, E. D., & Andrews, A. M. (2012). Rethinking 5-HT1A receptors: Emerging modes of inhibitory feedback of Relevance to Emotion-Related Behavior. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 4(1), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1021/cn3002174
Seo, D., Patrick, C. J., & Kennealy, P. J. (2008). Role of serotonin and dopamine system interactions in the neurobiology of impulsive aggression and its comorbidity with other clinical disorders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(5), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.06.003
⬅️ Serotonin and dopamine effects on anhedonia and emotional bias.
Depression and the brain. (2020, April 1). Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland. https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-diseases/depression/depression-and-brain
Hare, B. D., & Duman, R. S. (2020). Prefrontal cortex circuits in depression and anxiety: contribution of discrete neuronal populations and target regions. Molecular Psychiatry, 25(11), 2742–2758. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0685-9
Woo, D. (2024, April 21). What is the function of the prefrontal cortex? | Madison Avenue TMS & Psychiatry. Madison Avenue TMS & Psychiatry. https://www.madisonavetms.com/blog/what-is-the-function-of-the-prefrontal-cortex/
Schimmelpfennig, J., Topczewski, J., Zajkowski, W., & Jankowiak-Siuda, K. (2023). The role of the salience network in cognitive and affective deficits. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1133367
⬇️Different brain networks implicated in various psychiatric disorders.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors
⬅️ I used stats from the CDC to create this graph demonstrating the fall in TB cases after the invention of isoniazid.
Table 1 | Reported TB in the US 2022| Data & Statistics | TB | CDC. (n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/tb/statistics/reports/2022/table1.htm
Davison, A. N. & Roche Products Ltd. (1956). The Mechanism of the Irreversible Inhibition of Rat-Liver Monoamine Oxidase by Iproniazid (Marsilid). J. Biol. Chem. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200154/pdf/biochemj00840-0143.pdf
Bhawna, N., Kumar, A., Bhatia, M., Kapoor, A., Kumar, P., & Kumar, S. (2022). Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: A concise review with special emphasis on structure activity relationship studies. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 242, 114655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114655
Tricyclic Antidepressants - Amitryptiline
Tricyclic Antidepressants - Amitryptiline
⬅️ Structure of amitryptiline showing classic TCA structure
Thour, A., & Marwaha, R. (2023, July 18). Amitriptyline. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537225/
Amitriptyline: Uses, interactions, mechanism of action | DrugBank Online. (n.d.). DrugBank. https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00321
Lawson, K. (2017). A brief review of the pharmacology of amitriptyline and clinical outcomes in treating fibromyalgia. Biomedicines, 5(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines5020024
Obata, H. (2017). Analgesic mechanisms of antidepressants for neuropathic pain. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18(11), 2483. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18112483
Amitriptyline therapy in chronic pain. (2015). In International Archives of Clinical Pharmacology (Vol. 1, p. 001) [Journal-article]. https://www.clinmedjournals.org/articles/iacp/iacp-1-001.pdf
Fornasari, D. (2017). Pharmacotherapy for Neuropathic Pain: a review. Pain and Therapy, 6(S1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40122-017-0091-4
Pain facilitation and inhibition. (n.d.). Physiopedia. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Pain_Facilitation_and_Inhibition
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors - Fluoxetine
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors - Fluoxetine
⬅️ Chart of various SSRIs and the severity of their side effects.
Ferguson, J. M. (2001). SSRI antidepressant medications. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v03n0105
Descarries, L., & Riad, M. (2012). Effects of the antidepressant fluoxetine on the subcellular localization of 5-HT 1A receptors and SERT. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 367(1601), 2416–2425. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0361
Baptista-De-Souza, D., Tavares, L. R. R., Furuya-Da-Cunha, E. M., De Oliveira, P. E. C., Canto-De-Souza, L., Nunes-De-Souza, R. L., & Canto-De-Souza, A. (2020). Chronic fluoxetine impairs the effects of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors activation in the PAG and amygdala on antinociception induced by aversive situation in mice. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00260
Sexual Dysfunction
Moses, T. E. H., & Javanbakht, A. (2023). Resolution of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor–Associated sexual dysfunction after switching from fluvoxamine to fluoxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 43(1), 71–73. https://doi.org/10.1097/jcp.0000000000001636
Jing, E., & Straw-Wilson, K. (2016). Sexual dysfunction in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and potential solutions: A narrative literature review. Mental Health Clinician, 6(4), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.9740/mhc.2016.07.191
Higgins, A. (2010). Antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction: impact, effects, and treatment. Drug Healthcare and Patient Safety, 141. https://doi.org/10.2147/dhps.s7634
Montejo, A. L., Llorca, G., Izquierdo, J. A., Rico-Villademoros, F., & Spanish Working Group for the Study of Psychotropic-Related Sexual Dysfunction. (2001). Incidence of sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressant agents: a prospective multicenter study of 1022 outpatients. In J Clin Psychiatry (Vol. 62, Issue suppl 3, pp. 10–21). Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc. https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/8888/
Moses, T. E. H., & Javanbakht, A. (2023). Resolution of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor–Associated sexual dysfunction after switching from fluvoxamine to fluoxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 43(1), 71–73. https://doi.org/10.1097/jcp.0000000000001636
Jing, E., & Straw-Wilson, K. (2016). Sexual dysfunction in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and potential solutions: A narrative literature review. Mental Health Clinician, 6(4), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.9740/mhc.2016.07.191
Higgins, A. (2010). Antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction: impact, effects, and treatment. Drug Healthcare and Patient Safety, 141. https://doi.org/10.2147/dhps.s7634
Montejo, A. L., Llorca, G., Izquierdo, J. A., Rico-Villademoros, F., & Spanish Working Group for the Study of Psychotropic-Related Sexual Dysfunction. (2001). Incidence of sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressant agents: a prospective multicenter study of 1022 outpatients. In J Clin Psychiatry (Vol. 62, Issue suppl 3, pp. 10–21). Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc. https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/8888/
⬅️ Brain areas involved in human sexual behavior.
Calabrò, R. S., Cacciola, A., Bruschetta, D., Milardi, D., Quattrini, F., Sciarrone, F., La Rosa, G., Bramanti, P., & Anastasi, G. (2019). Neuroanatomy and function of human sexual behavior: A neglected or unknown issue? Brain and Behavior, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1389
Jenkins, L. C., & Mulhall, J. P. (2015). Delayed orgasm and anorgasmia. Fertility and Sterility, 104(5), 1082–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.09.029
Graf, H., Malejko, K., Metzger, C. D., Walter, M., Grön, G., & Abler, B. (2019). Serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic modulation of erotic stimulus processing in the male human brain. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(3), 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8030363
Frohlich, P. F., & Meston, C. M. (n.d.). Evidence that serotonin affects female sex functioning via peripheral mechanisms. Physiology & Behavior, 71, 383–393. https://labs.la.utexas.edu/mestonlab/files/2016/05/serotonin-and-sexual-function.pdf
Not a full journal article - info gleaned from abstract.
Cellek, S. (2000). Nitrergic-noradrenergic interaction in penile erection: A new insight into erectile dysfunction. Drugs of Today, 36(2–3), 135. https://doi.org/10.1358/dot.2000.36.2-3.568787
Alwaal, A., Breyer, B. N., & Lue, T. F. (2015). Normal male sexual function: emphasis on orgasm and ejaculation. Fertility and Sterility, 104(5), 1051–1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.033
Ning, C., Qi, L., Wen, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, W., Wang, W., Blackburn, M., Kellems, R., & Xia, Y. (2012). Excessive penile norepinephrine level underlies impaired erectile function in adenosine A1 receptor deficient mice. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 9(10), 2552–2561. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02896.x
Therapeutic Lag
⬅️ 5-HT1A receptors are implicated in the desensitization/feedback inhibition involved in SSRI therapeutic lag.
Commons, K. G., & Linnros, S. E. (2019). Delayed antidepressant efficacy and the desensitization hypothesis. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 10(7), 3048–3052. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00698
Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors - Duloxetine
Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors - Duloxetine
Dhaliwal, J. S., Spurling, B. C., & Molla, M. (2023, May 29). Duloxetine. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549806/
Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (n.d.). Serotonin Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: A pharmacological comparison. PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008300/
Shelton, R. C., University of Alabama at Birmingham, MBL Communications Inc., Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Eli Lilly, Evotec, Forest, Gedeon-Richter, Janssen, Merck, Otsuka, Pamlab, Sierra, Advogent, National Institutes of Health, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, Pfizer, Kathleen Dorries, & Lorraine Sweeney. (2009). Serotonin Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors: Similarities and differences. In Primary Psychiatry (Vol. 25, pp. 25–35) [Article]. MBL Communications Inc. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Richard-Shelton-3/publication/228759290_Serotonin_norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitors_Similarities_and_differences/links/53f50fb80cf2888a74917291/Serotonin-norepinephrine-reuptake-inhibitors-Similarities-and-differences.pdf
Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors - Wellbutrin
Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors - Wellbutrin
Huecker, M. R., Smiley, A., & Saadabadi, A. (2023, April 9). Bupropion. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470212/
NE and Specific Serotonergic Antagonist - Mirtazapine
NE and Specific Serotonergic Antagonist - Mirtazapine
⬅️ This doctor gave a great presentation on the intricacies of Mirtazapine.
Jilani, T. N., Gibbons, J. R., Faizy, R. M., & Saadabadi, A. (2023, August 28). Mirtazapine. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519059/
Antidepressant Statistics
Antidepressant Statistics
Martin, J., MD. (2024, August 15). The 20 most common antidepressants. WhatMedicine.Org. https://www.whatmedicine.org/2023/10/the-most-common-antidepressants.html#most-prescribed-us
Kessler, R. C., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Wittchen, H. (2012). Twelve‐month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21(3), 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1359
Archie, A. (2024, February 27). The rate of antidepressants prescribed to young people surged during the pandemic. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/02/27/1234112068/antidepressants-youth-pandemic-study
Huo, S., Bruckner, T. A., Xiong, G. L., Cooper, E., Wade, A., Neikrug, A. B., Gagliardi, J. P., & McCarron, R. (2023). Antidepressant prescription behavior among primary care clinician providers after an interprofessional primary care psychiatric training program. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 50(6), 926–935. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-023-01290-x
Chua, K., Volerman, A., Zhang, J., Hua, J., & Conti, R. M. (2024). Antidepressant dispensing to US adolescents and young adults: 2016–2022. PEDIATRICS, 153(3). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-064245
Coupland, C., Hill, T., Morriss, R., Arthur, A., Moore, M., & Hippisley-Cox, J. (2015). Antidepressant use and risk of suicide and attempted suicide or self harm in people aged 20 to 64: cohort study using a primary care database. BMJ, 350(feb18 32), h517. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h517
Lagerberg, T., Fazel, S., Sjölander, A., Hellner, C., Lichtenstein, P., & Chang, Z. (2021). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and suicidal behaviour: a population-based cohort study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(4), 817–823. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-021-01179-z
Garcia-Marin, L. M., Mulcahy, A., Byrne, E. M., Medland, S. E., Wray, N. R., Chafota, F., Lind, P. A., Martin, N. G., Hickie, I. B., Rentería, M. E., & Campos, A. I. (2023). Discontinuation of antidepressant treatment: a retrospective cohort study on more than 20,000 participants. Annals of General Psychiatry, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-023-00480-z
McCain, J. A. (2009, July 1). Antidepressants and Suicide in Adolescents and Adults: A Public Health Experiment with Unintended Consequences? PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2799109/
Neurotrophic/Neuroplastic Theory of Depression
Neurotrophic/Neuroplastic Theory of Depression
⬅️ Mediators of neuron survival, proliferation, and growth are mediated by certain factors that may be increased with antidepressants.
Duman, R. S., & Li, N. (2012). A neurotrophic hypothesis of depression: role of synaptogenesis in the actions of NMDA receptor antagonists. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 367(1601), 2475–2484. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0357
Bathina, S., & Das, U. N. (2015). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its clinical implications. Archives of Medical Science, 6, 1164–1178. https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.56342
⬅️ Multiple pathways are involved in BDNF's influence on neuron growth, survival, and differentiation.
Yang, T., Nie, Z., Shu, H., Kuang, Y., Chen, X., Cheng, J., Yu, S., & Liu, H. (2020). The role of BDNF on neural plasticity in Depression. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2020.00082
Yu, H., & Chen, Z. (2010). The role of BDNF in depression on the basis of its location in the neural circuitry. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, 32(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/aps.2010.184
Arosio, B., Guerini, F. R., Voshaar, R. C. O., & Aprahamian, I. (2021). Blood Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and major Depression: Do we have a translational perspective? Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.626906
Mosiołek, A., Mosiołek, J., Jakima, S., Pięta, A., & Szulc, A. (2021). Effects of Antidepressant Treatment on Neurotrophic Factors (BDNF and IGF-1) in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(15), 3377. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10153377
Glutamatergic Theory of Depression
Glutamatergic Theory of Depression
⬅️ Some GABA/glutamate connections in brain areas associated with depression
Sarawagi, A., Soni, N. D., & Patel, A. B. (2021). Glutamate and GABA homeostasis and neurometabolism in major depressive disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.637863
⬅️ Metabolism of GABA and glutamate via uptake by surrounding astrocytes.
Moriguchi, S., Takamiya, A., Noda, Y., Horita, N., Wada, M., Tsugawa, S., Plitman, E., Sano, Y., Tarumi, R., ElSalhy, M., Katayama, N., Ogyu, K., Miyazaki, T., Kishimoto, T., Graff-Guerrero, A., Meyer, J. H., Blumberger, D. M., Daskalakis, Z. J., Mimura, M., & Nakajima, S. (2018). Glutamatergic neurometabolite levels in major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(7), 952–964. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0252-9
Glutamate/GABA synthesis & metabolism. (n.d.). https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technical-documents/technical-article/protein-biology/protein-expression/glutamate-gaba-synthesis-and-metabolism
Schousboe, A., Scafidi, S., Bak, L. K., Waagepetersen, H. S., & McKenna, M. C. (2014). Glutamate metabolism in the brain focusing on astrocytes. In Advances in neurobiology (pp. 13–30). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08894-5_2
Abdallah, C. G., Jiang, L., De Feyter, H. M., Fasula, M., Krystal, J. H., Rothman, D. L., Mason, G. F., & Sanacora, G. (2014). Glutamate metabolism in major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(12), 1320–1327. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14010067
Hu, Y., Chen, X., Gu, H., & Yang, Y. (2013). Resting-State glutamate and GABA concentrations predict Task-Induced deactivation in the default mode network. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(47), 18566–18573. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1973-13.2013
Duman, R. S., Sanacora, G., & Krystal, J. H. (2019). Altered connectivity in depression: GABA and glutamate neurotransmitter deficits and reversal by novel treatments. Neuron, 102(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2019.03.013
Soiza-Reilly, M., & Commons, K. G. (2011). Glutamatergic drive of the dorsal raphe nucleus. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy, 41(4), 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchemneu.2011.04.004
Pehrson, A. L., & Sanchez, C. (2013). Serotonergic modulation of glutamate neurotransmission as a strategy for treating depression and cognitive dysfunction. CNS Spectrums, 19(2), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1092852913000540
Cieślak, P. E., Llamosas, N., Kos, T., Ugedo, L., Jastrzębska, K., Torrecilla, M., & Parkitna, J. R. (2017). The role of NMDA receptor‐dependent activity of noradrenergic neurons in attention, impulsivity and exploratory behaviors. Genes Brain & Behavior, 16(8), 812–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12383
Okada, M., & Fukuyama, K. (2020). Interaction between Mesocortical and Mesothalamic Catecholaminergic Transmissions Associated with NMDA Receptor in the Locus Coeruleus. Biomolecules, 10(7), 990. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10070990
Ketamine
Ketamine
⬅️ Ketamine blocks NMDA glutamate receptors on GABA neurons, disinhibiting downstream neurons and leading to increased glutamate neurotransmission as well as an increase in BDNF.
Rosenbaum, S. B., Gupta, V., Patel, P., & Palacios, J. L. (2024, January 30). Ketamine. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470357/
A complete guide to ketamine compliance — CCG Healthcare compliance. (n.d.). CCG Healthcare Compliance. https://www.ccghealthcare.com/guide-to-ketamine-infusion-compliance
Ms, C. P. P. (2024, February 26). IV Ketamine vs. Spravato for Treatment-Resistant Depression. GoodRx. https://www.goodrx.com/conditions/depression/iv-ketamine-vs-spravato
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